Species

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Justification
This species is listed as Endangered because it is estimated to be declining at a very rapid rate over three generations (65 years) on the basis of current rates of decline at the large breeding colonies in the south-west Atlantic. These declines have been attributed to the impact of incidental mortality in longline and trawl fisheries.

Taxonomic source(s)
AERC TAC. 2003. AERC TAC Checklist of bird taxa occurring in Western Palearctic region, 15th Draft. Available at: http://www.aerc.eu/DOCS/Bird_taxa_of _the_WP15.xls.
Brooke, M. De L. 2004. Albatrosses and petrels across the world. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Christidis, L.; Boles, W. E. 2008. Systematics and taxonomy of Australian birds. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Australia.
Robertson, C. J. R.; Nunn, G. B. 1998. Towards a new taxonomy for albatrosses. In: Robertson, G.; Gales, R. (ed.), Albatross biology and conservation, pp. 13-19. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton, Australia.
SACC. 2006. A classification of the bird species of South America. Available at: http://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/SACCBaseline.html.

Taxonomic note
Diomedea melanophris (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into melanophrys and impavida and both placed in the genus Thalassarche following Robertson and Nunn (1998) and Brooke (2004).

Synonym(s)
Thalassarche melanophris Christidis and Boles (2008), Thalassarche melanophris melanophris Christidis and Boles (2008)

Identification
88 cm. Medium-sized albatross. Dark grey saddle and upperwings contrast strongly with white head, rump and underparts. Underwing is largely white with very broad, rather irregular, black margins. Dark eyebrow and yellow-orange bill with darker red-orange tip. Juveniles and sub-adults have dark, horn-coloured bills with dark tips, grey on head and collar, and dark underwing, which lightens with age. Similar spp. Juveniles can be very similar to juvenile Grey-headed Albatross Thalassarche chrysostoma but show faintly black-tipped bills and darker ridges.

Distribution and population
Thalassarche melanophrys has a circumpolar distribution ranging from subtropical to polar waters (ACAP 2009), breeding in the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas), Islas Diego Ramirez, Ildefonso, Diego de Almagro and Isla Evangelistas (Chile), South Georgia (Georgias del Sur), Crozet and Kerguelen Islands (French Southern Territories), Heard and McDonald Islands and Macquarie Island (Australia), and Campbell and Antipodes Islands, New Zealand (Croxall and Gales 1998). Two breeding sites are also found in southern Chile on islets in Tierra del Fuego and in the Mallaganes region (ACAP 2009). One colony was also recorded on Snares Island in 1986 (ACAP 2009). The total breeding population was estimated at c.680,000 pairs in 1998, 80% at the Falkland Islands, 10% at South Georgia and 3% in Chile (Croxall and Gales 1998). More recent data revised this to c.575,151 pairs, 70% in the Falkland Islands, 10% at South Georgia and 20% in Chile. Numbers in the Falklands apparently increased substantially during the 1980s, but have since declined at 0.7% per annum (Huin and Reid 2007); though some colonies have increased in size, the trends are not consistent between years and sites, and even between sub-colonies within the sites. In addition, some colonies surveyed using aerial photography have reportedly shown increases between 21 and 141%. The small population on Heard Island (c.600 pairs) appears to have increased over the past 50 years. Trends are still uncertain for the populations in Chile. Adult survival on South Georgia decreased from 93% pre-1970 to 89% in 1987, and breeding success also decreased over the same period (from 36% to 18%) (Croxall 2008). Very rapid ongoing declines are suspected overall.


Population justification
The total population of 593,447 breeding pairs (equating to 1.15 million mature individuals) is made up of 399,416 pairs in the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) (Huin and Reid 2007), 74,296 pairs in South Georgia (Poncet et al. 2006) 114,608 pairs in Chile and other populations (Antipodes, Campbell, Heard and MacDonald, Crozet, Kerguelen, Macquarie, Snares) (Gales 1998). If an assumption is made that the South Georgia population is declining at the same rate as the colony on Bird Island (c.4% pa) then the population there may have declined to c.56,000 pairs by 2012.

Trend justification
Populations at Bird Island (11% of the South Georgia total) declined by 4% per annum between 1989-1990 and 2003-2004 (Poncet et al. 2006), and the population on Kerguelen declined by 17% between 1978-1979 and 1994-1995 (Weimerskirch and Jouventin 1998). Numbers at Diego Ramirez may have decreased during the 1980s and recovered recently (Schlatter 1984; Arata and Moreno 2002). Numbers in the Falklands apparently increased substantially during the 1980s (Croxall and Gales 1998; Gales 1998), probably attributable to abundant offal and discards from trawl fisheries (Thompson and Riddy 1995). However, two full censuses of the Falkland Islands population has shown declines at most colonies, with a sharp decrease at Steeple Jason and Beauchêne islands (70% of the Falklands total) (Huin and Reid 2007). Currently the Falklands population is declining at 0.7% per annum (Huin and Reid 2007). Trends are still uncertain for the populations in Chile. Numbers at Diego Ramirez may have decreased during the 1980s and since recovered (Schlatter 1984, Arata and Moreno 2002). The small population on Heard Island (c.600 pairs) appears to have increased over the past 50 years (Woehler et al. 2002). The combination of trends across colonies and, in particular, the declines in the Falklands, South Georgia and Kerguelen, indicate an overall decline of 67% over 64 years (three generations).

Ecology
Behaviour This is a colonial, annually breeding species, although only 75% of successful breeders and 67% of failed breeders breed the following year. Individuals arrive at colonies in September, laying in early October with chicks hatching in December and fledging between April and May. Immature birds begin to return to land at the age of two with the numbers of returning birds increasing up to the age of six. The median age of first breeding is 10 years (range 8-13) (ACAP 2009). During incubation, breeding birds tend to remain in areas adjacent to or to the north of their colonies in the shelf, shelf-break and shelf-slope waters (ACAP 2009). At Campbell Island, Black-browed Albatross show a unique bimodal foraging strategy, alternating between short trips to shelf areas around the breeding site and long trips to the Polar Front (Waugh et al. 1999). Birds foraging over the Benguela Current during the winter also showed a bimodal feeding strategy, alternating trips over deep, oceanic waters with trips over the continental shelf (Petersen et al. 2008). During incubation on the Falkland Islands, satellite tracking reveals males and females forage in different areas with almost no overlap (Phillips et al. 2004). After breeding, birds from the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) winter on the Patagonian Shelf (N. Huin in litt 2008), whereas birds from South Georgia predominantly migrate to South African waters, spending the first half of the winter in the highly productive Benguela Current (Phillips et al. 2005). Black-browed Albatross from Chile make use of the Chilean Shelf, the Patagonian Shelf, and some spend the non-breeding season around north New Zealand. Habitat Breeding The species nests colonially on steep slopes with tussock grass, sometimes on cliff terraces, but the largest colonies in the Falklands are on flat ground along the shore line. Diet It feeds mainly on crustaceans, fish and squid, and also on carrion and fishery discards (Cherel et al. 2002, Arata et al. 2003, Xavier et al. 2003). A Wilson’s Storm-petrel was recorded in the stomach contents of a bycaught individual on the Patagonian Shelf (Seco Pon and Gandini 2008), and while various Sphenisciformes and Procellariiformes have been found in the stomachs of albatrosses, penguins tend to be recorded more frequently, although none are typical prey items (Seco Pon and Gandini 2008). The exact composition of its diet varies depending on locality and year (ACAP 2009). Foraging Range During chick-rearing, breeding T. melanophrys initially stay in shelf to shelf-slope areas very close to their colonies (within c. 500 km). Later, birds from Chile and South Georgia (Islas Georgias del Sur) may also travel up to c. 3,000 km from their breeding sites, especially to the Antarctic Peninsula and South Orkney Islands, but birds from the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) and Kerguelen continue to remain close to their colonies (ACAP 2009).

Threats
Declines may be attributable to increased longline fishing effort and/or the development of new longline fisheries over much of the Patagonian Shelf, around South Georgia, off the southern African coast, and in the Southern Ocean (Tuck and Polacheck 1997, Prince et al. 1998, Schiavini et al. 1998, Stagi et al. 1998). Indeed, it is one of the most frequently killed species in many longline fisheries including tuna longliners off southern Africa, the pelagic longline swordfish fishery off Chile and Argentine longliners targeting toothfish and kingclip on the Patagonian shelf (Murray et al. 1993, Gales et al. 1998, Ryan and Boix-Hinzen 1998, Schiavini et al. 1998, Stagi et al. 1998, Ryan et al. 2002 Reid and Sullivan 2004, Bugoni et al. 2008). Capture rates can vary greatly according to season, number of hooks and type of longline (Bugoni et al. 2008). Over recent years, mortality in trawl fisheries has been identified as a major source of mortality for this species over the Patagonian Shelf (Sullivan and Reid 2002) and South Africa (Watkins et al. 2007), with an estimated minimum 5,000 killed per annum across the deep-water hake trawl fishery in south African waters during winter (Watkins et al. 2008). Recent large-scale volcanic eruptions at Heard Island (2003-2004 in particular) may have caused most birds to desert nesting sites (ACAP 2009). The explosion in European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus numbers on Macquarie Island since 1999 has led to an extensive destruction of habitat and soil erosion at nesting sites. An eradication programme targeting rodents commenced in 2010. Cats (Felis catus) are thought to impact upon colonies on the Kerguelen Islands at Jeanne d'Arc Peninsula (ACAP 2009).

Conservation actions underway
CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. It is monitored at South Georgia, Kerguelen, Campbell, Diego Ramirez and the Falkland Islands. Most breeding sites are reserves. Heard and McDonald, Macquarie, and the New Zealand islands are World Heritage Sites. An initial census of Chilean islands has been completed (Lawton et al. 2004).

Conservation actions proposed
Continue monitoring and research programmes at all sites. Conduct complete censuses at all sites at regular intervals (South Georgia, Chile, Falkland Islands [Islas Malvinas] and French Southern Territories). Assess the impact of trawl fisheries bycatch . Continue to develop mitigation strategies for trawl fisheries, notably on the Patagonian Shelf and South Africa. Promote adoption of a) monitoring of seabirds bycatch associated with longline fishing and b) best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species's range, including via intergovernmental mechanisms under the auspices of ACAP, FAO and Regional Fisheries Management Organisations such as CCAMLR and the tuna commissions of the Atlantic Ocean (ICCAT).

Related state of the world's birds case studies

• Many albatross species are in alarming slow decline
• Seabirds suffer from eating "junk"
• Trawl fisheries cause significant mortality to albatrosses along the west coast of southern Africa

References
Schlatter, R. P. 1984. The status and conservation of seabirds in Chile. In: Croxall, J.P.; Evans, P.G.H.; Schreiber, R.W. (ed.), Status and conservation of the world's seabirds, pp. 261-269. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, U.K.

Murray, T. E.; Bartle, J. A.; Kalish, S. R.; Taylor, P. R. 1993. Incidental capture of seabirds by Japenese southern bluefin tuna longline vessels in New Zealand waters, 1988-1992. Bird Conservation International 3: 181-210.

Prince, P. A.; Rothery, P.; Croxall, J. P.; Wood, A. G. 1994. Population dynamics of Black-browed and Grey-headed Albatrosses Diomedea melanophrys and D. chrysostoma at Bird Island, South Georgia. Ibis 136: 50-71.

Croxall, J. P.; Prince, P. A.; Rothery, P.; Wood, A. G. 1998. Population changes in albatrosses at South Georgia. In: Robertson, G.; Gales, R. (ed.), Albatross biology and conservation, pp. 69-83. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton, Australia.

Thompson, K. R.; Riddy, M. D. 1995. Utilisation of offal discards from finfish trawlers around the Falkland Islands by the Black-browed Albatross Diomedea melanophris. Ibis 137: 198-206.

Tuck, G.; Polacheck, T. 1997. Trends in tuna long-line fisheries in the Southern Oceans and implications for seabird by-catch: 1997 update.

Schiavini, A.; Frere, E.; Gandini, P.; García, N.; Crespo, E. 1998. Albatross-fisheries interactions in Patagonian shelf waters. In: Robertson, G.; Gales, R. (ed.), Albatross biology and conservation, pp. 208-213. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton, Australia.

Stagi, A.; Vaz-Ferreira, R.; Marin, Y.; Joesph, L. 1998. The conservation of albatrosses in Uruguayan waters. In: Robertson, G.; Gales, R. (ed.), Albatross biology and conservation, pp. 220-224. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton, Australia.

Croxall, J. P.; Gales, R. 1998. Assessment of the conservation status of albatrosses. In: Robertson, G.; Gales, R. (ed.), Albatross biology and conservation, pp. 46-65. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton, Australia.

Gales, R.; Brothers, N.; Reid, T. 1998. Seabird mortality in the Japanese tuna longline fishery around Australia, 1988-1995. Biological Conservation 86: 37-56.

Weimerskirch, H.; Jouventin, P. 1998. Changes in population sizes and demographic parameters of six albatross species breeding on the French sub-antarctic islands. In: Robertson, G.; Gales, R. (ed.), Albatross biology and conservation, pp. 84-91. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton, Australia.

Gales, R. 1998. Albatross populations: status and threats. In: Robertson, G.; Gales, R. (ed.), Albatross biology and conservation, pp. 20-45. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton, Australia.

Prince, P. A.; Croxall, J. P.; Trathan, P. N.; Wood, A. G. 1998. The pelagic distribtuion of South Georgia albatrosses and their relationships with fisheries. In: Robertson, G.; Gales, R. (ed.), Albatross biology and conservation, pp. 137-167. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton, Australia.

Ryan, P. G.; Boix-Hinzen, C. 1998. Tuna long-line fisheries off southern Africa: the need to limit seabird bycatch. South African Journal of Science 94: 179-182.

Waugh, S. M.; Weimerskirch, H.; Moore, P. J.; Sagar, P. M. 1999. Population dynamics of Black-browed and Grey-headed Albatrosses Diomedea melanophrys and D. chrysostoma at Campbell Island, New Zealand, 1942-96. Ibis 141: 216-225.

Waugh, S. M.; Sagar, P. M.; Cossee, R. O. 1999. New Zealand Black-browed Albatross Diomedea melanophrys impavida and Grey-headed Albatross D. chrysotoma banded at Campbell Island: recoveries from the South Pacific region. Emu 99: 29-35.

Waugh, S. M.; Weimerskirch, H.; Cherel, Y.; Shankar, U.; Prince, P. A.; Sagar, P. M. 1999. Exploitation of the marine environment by two sympatric albatrosses in the Pacific Southern Ocean. Marine Ecology Progress Series 177: 243.

Arata, J.; Moreno, C. A. 2002. Progress report of Chilean research on albatross ecology and conservation. CCAMLR-WG-FSA-02/18.

Ryan, P. G.; Keith, D. G.; Kroese, M. 2002. Seabird bycatch by tuna longline fisheries off southern Africa, 1998-2000. South African Journal of Marine Science 24: 103.

Sullivan, B.; Reid, T. 2002. Seabird interactions/mortality with longliners and trawlers in the Falkland/Malvinas Island waters. CCAMLR-WG-FSA-02/36.

Woehler, E. J.; Auman, H. J.; Riddle, M. J. 2002. Long-term population increase of Black-browed Albatross Thalassarche melanophrys at Heard Island, 1947/1948-2000/2001. Polar Biology 25: 921-927.

Lawton, K.; Robertson, G.; Valencia, J.; Wienecke, B.; Kirkwood, R. 2003. The status of Black-browed Albatrosses Thalassarche melanophrys at Diego de Almagro Island, Chile. Ibis 145: 502-505.

Arata, J.; Robertson, G.; Valencia, J.; Lawton, K. 2003. The Evangelistas Islets, Chile: a new breeding site for black-browed albatrosses. Polar Biology 26: 687-690.

Reid, T. A.; Sullivan, B.J. 2004. Longliners, black-browed albatross mortality and bait scavenging in Falkland Island waters: what is the relationship? Polar Biology 27: 131-139.

Huin, N.; Reid, T. 2007. Census of the Black-browed Albatross population of the Falkland Islands, 2000 and 2005.

Robertson, G.; Moreno, C. A.; Lawton, K.; Arata, J.; Valencia, J.; Kirkwood, R. 2007. An estimate of the population sizes of Black-browed (Thalassarche melanophrys) and Grey-headed (T. chrysostoma) Albatross breeding in the Diego Ramírez Archipelago, Chile. Emu 107(3): 239-244.

Poncet, S.; Robertson, G.; Phillips, R. A.; Lawton, K.; Phalan, B.; Trathan, P. N.; Croxall, J. P. 2004. Status and distribution of wandering Black-browed and Grey-headed Albatrosses breeding at South Georgia. Polar Biology 29: 772-781.

Phillips, R. A.; Silk, J. R .D.; Croxall, J. P. 2005. Foraging and provisioning strategies of the light-mantled Sooty Albatross at South Georgia: competition and co-existence with sympatric pelagic predators. Marine Ecology Progress Series 285: 259-270.

Watkins, B. P.; Petersen, S. L.; Ryan, P. G. 2007. Interactions between seabirds and deep-water hake trawl gear: an assessment of impacts in South African waters.

Phillips, R. A.; Silk, J. R. D.; Phalan, B.; Catry, P.; Croxall, J. P. 2004. Seasonal sexual segregation of two Thalassarche albatross species: competitive exclusion, reproductive role specialization or foraging niche divergence? Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B 271: 1283-1291.

Cherel, Y.; Weimerskirch, H.; Trouve, C. 21002. Dietary evidence for spatial foraging segregation in sympatric albatrosses (Diomedea spp.) rearing chicks at Iles Nuageuses, Kerguelen. Marine Biology 141: 1117-1129.

Xavier, J. C.; Croxall, J. P.; Reid, K. 2003. Interannual variation in the diets of two albatross species breeding at South Georgia: implications for breeding performance. Ibis 145(4): 593-610.

Watkins, B. P.; Petersen, S. L.; Ryan, P. G. 2008. Interactions between seabirds and deep-water hake trawl gear: an assessment of impacts in South African waters. Animal Conservation 11(4): 247-254.

Croxall, J. P. 2008. The role of science and advocacy in the conservation of Southern Ocean albatrosses at sea. Bird Conservation International 18: S13-S29.

Seco Pon, J. P.; Gandini, P. A. 2008. Black-browed Albatross Thalassarche melanophrys feeding on a Wilson's Storm Petrel Oceanites oceanicus. Marine Ornithology 36(1): 77-78.

Petersen, S. L.; Phillips, R. A.; Ryan, P. G.; Underhill, L. G. 2008. Albatross overlap with fisheries in the Benguela Upwelling System: implications for conservation and management. Endangered Species Research 5(2/3): 117-127.

Bugoni, L.; Mancini, P. L.; Monteiro, D. S.; Nascimento, L.; Neves, T. S. 2008. Seabird bycatch in the Brazilian pelagic online fishery and a review of capture rates in the southwestern Atlantic ocean. Endangered Species Research 5(2/3): 137-147.

Strange, I. J. 2008. Aerial surveys of Black-browed Albatross (Thalassarche melanophris) breeding colonies in the Falkland Islands: the methodology employed and comparisons with surveys carried out in 1986-2005 and 2007.

ACAP. 2009. ACAP Species Assessment: Black-browed Albatross Thalassarche melanophrys. Available at: #http://www.acap.aq/acap-species/download-document/1183-black-browed-albatross.

Further web sources of information
Additional information is available on the distribution of the Black-browed Albatross from the Global Procellariiform Tracking Database (http://www.seabirdtracking.org)

Australian Govt - Action Plan for Australian Birds 2000 - Recovery Outline

View photos and videos, and hear sounds of this species from the Internet Bird Collection

Text account compilers
Anderson, O., Butchart, S., Calvert, R., Small, C., Sullivan, B., Symes, A.

Contributors
Arata, J., Croxall, J., Huin, N., Misiak, W., Phillips, R., Robertson, G.

IUCN Red List evaluators
Butchart, S., Taylor, J.

Recommended citation
BirdLife International (2013) Species factsheet: Thalassarche melanophrys. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 25/05/2013. Recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species: BirdLife International (2013) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 25/05/2013.

This information is based upon, and updates, the information published in BirdLife International (2000) Threatened birds of the world. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004 CD-ROM and BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008 CD-ROM. These sources provide the information for species accounts for the birds on the IUCN Red List.

To provide new information to update this factsheet or to correct any errors, please email BirdLife

To contribute to discussions on the evaluation of the IUCN Red List status of Globally Threatened Birds, please visit BirdLife's Globally Threatened Bird Forums.

Additional resources for this species

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