Species

Justification
The population trend of this species is poorly known. It is categorised as Near Threatened because, given its longevity and slow productivity, and a high rate of mortality recorded in longline and trawl fisheries, it may be declining at a moderately rapid rate.

Taxonomic source(s)
Robertson, C. J. R.; Nunn, G. B. 1998. Towards a new taxonomy for albatrosses. In: Robertson, G.; Gales, R. (ed.), Albatross biology and conservation, pp. 13-19. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton, Australia.

Taxonomic note
Diomedea cauta (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) has been split into cauta, eremita and salvini following Brooke (2004) and steadi following Robertson & Nunn (1998), ACAP (2006) and all placed in the genus Thalassarche following Brooke (2004).

Identification
90 cm. Medium-sized black, slate-grey and white albatross with a black thumb mark at the base of the leading edge of the underwing. It has a bold white cap contrasting with a pale silver-grey face and a darker brow. Some adult birds may have a very white back with brown tips to the feathers (B. Watkins in litt. 2008). The mantle is dark grey and tail black. The body plumage is all white and its bill is pale grey/blue with a yellow tip. Immature birds have a grey bill with a dark tip, which lightens with age and a darker head than the adult with grey extending to the collar. Similar spp. very similar to slightly smaller Shy Albatross T. cauta but T. steadi has paler face and less yellow on the culmen of the bill. Salvin's Albatross T. salvini and Chatham Albatross T. eremita have darker grey heads and lack the white cap.

Distribution and population
Thalassarche steadi is endemic to offshore islands of New Zealand, with the breeding population estimated at approximately 95,000 pairs by ACAP (2009), although only c.77,000 pairs were estimated in 2011. Populations are distributed predominantly on Disappointment Island (91,500 pairs) (ACAP 2009), Auckland (5,000 pairs) (ACAP 2009) and Adams Islands (100 pairs) (Croxall and Gales 1998, Taylor 2000) in the Auckland Island group, and Bollon's Island (c.100) (Tennyson et al. 1998) in the Antipodes Island group. The population is estimated to comprise approximately 300,000. 'Shy' type albatrosses have been recorded in the south-west Atlantic for many years (White et al. 2002, Phalan et al. 2004). Most of the birds recorded are immature, which has hindered specific identification. However, genetic evidence from a bird on South Georgia confirmed the species was T. steadi (Phalan et al. 2004). In addition, tracking studies (Thompson and Sagar 2007), bird band recoveries (Robertson et al. 2003) and DNA-based identification of bycatch specimens (Abbott et al. 2006) have confirmed that this species forages in Tasmania and Southern Africa/Namibia (Robertson et al. 2003), and immature birds are thought to occur regularly throughout the South Atlantic and south-west Indian Ocean. The first tracking studies commenced on Auckland Island in 2006 and are ongoing (Thompson and Sagar 2007). Although global counts of T. steadi have increased from 75,000 breeding pairs in 1993 to a current estimate of 97,089 pairs, the estimates are not based on comparable methodologies and therefore population trends cannot be calculated. Counts since 2007 are comparable with those from 2011 and indicate a substantially declining population (117,197 pairs in 2007 and 77,005 pairs in 2011), but further data are needed to confirm whether this represents a genuine and extremely rapid decline. The need for accurate trend information is highlighted by the report of an estimated 8,000 albatrosses of this species killed annually as a result of longline and trawl fisheries (ACAP 2009).


Population justification
The global estimated breeding population was approximately 77,145 pairs in 2011. This equates to 154,000 mature individuals, although there is a suggestion that this species might be a biennial breeder, in which case the number of adults would require recalculation.

Trend justification
Although global counts of T. steadi have increased from 75,000 breeding pairs in 1993 to a current estimate of 77,145 pairs in 2011, the estimates are not based on comparable methodologies and therefore population trends cannot be calculated over this temporal period. Counts since 2007 are comparable with current estimates and indicate a substantially declining population (117,197 pairs in 2007 and 77,005 pairs in 2011, for the Auckland Islands excluding Adams Island, where there is a very small population - 117 pairs in 2011). These figures point to a >99% decline over three generations from 1980 (69 years). However, counts between 2007-2011 indicate a highly variable inter-annual population (26,331 pair difference between 2007 and 2008), and the possibility of a biennially breeding species. Consequently, this rapid population decline cannot yet be confirmed, but given the reported figures of bycatch, this is the most likely scenario. Further data are required to confirm recent population trend analysis, and the trend is currently retained as a moderately rapid ongoing decline.

Ecology
Behaviour The White-capped Albatross breeds annually in colonies, though recent studies suggest it may breed biennially (ACAP 2009). However, the breeding frequency and season for this species is poorly known (Petersen 2004). Eggs are usually laid mid-November and hatch in February. Chicks are thought to fledge in mid-August, though a fledging period of June-July may be more likely. Some adults remain near the colonies year-round (ACAP 2009). Habitat Breeding Colonies are generally located on rock islands. Diet The main foods include, fish, cephalopods, crustaceans and tunicates. It is a ship-follower and fish processing discharge comprises a significant proportion of its diet. Birds are generally surface feeders, but may undertake shallow surface dives.

Threats
The geographic range of T. steadi brings them into contact with a variety of longline and trawl fisheries in New Zealand, the high seas and off the coast of South Africa and Namibia (Baker et al. 2007). Although T. cauta ('shy-type') comprised 15% of all seabirds returned from longlines in New Zealand waters during 1988-1997 (Taylor 2000), New Zealand demersal and pelagic longline fisheries are currently considered to have a relatively low impact on T. steadi populations (Baker et al. 2007). The Auckland Islands squid trawl fishery killed 2,300 adults in 1990 alone, most through collision with net monitor cables, which were phased out in 1992 (Croxall and Gales 1998, Taylor 2000). However, birds are still killed by entanglement in nets and by collision with warp cables in trawl fisheries (Taylor 2000, Baker et al. 2007). This species is also the most frequently caught species in pelagic tuna longline operations off South Africa (Ryan et al. 2002). It is estimated that 7,000-11,000 T. steadi were killed in the South African pelagic longline fishery between 1998-2000 (Ryan et al. 2002), and in 2005, an estimated 500-600 shy-type albatrosses were killed (Petersen 2004). In the South African demersal trawl fishery, observer data from 2004-2005 produced an estimate of 7,700 shy type albatrosses killed annually. Subsequent DNA analysis indicated that these were all T. steadi (ACAP 2009). In 2005 and 2006, T. steadi spent 85% of their time in southern African trawl grounds (ACAP 2009). Since the introduction of mandatory permit requirements in August 2006, whereby all vessels must deploy a bird streamer line, the bycatch rate has decreased but further data collection is required to establish a new catch estimate (Watkins et al 2006). The impact of the large distant water fleets of Japan, Taiwan (China) and Korea on T. steadi is largely unknown, but Japanese data from 2001-2002 indicate that at least 10% of recorded albatross mortalities were 'shy-type' albatrosses (Baker et al. 2007). It has been estimated that 8,200 White-capped Albatrosses are currently killed per annum, 75% of which are as a result of interactions with trawl fisheries in South African, Namibian and New Zealand waters (Baker et al. 2007). In the Uruguayan longline fleet operating in the southwest Atlantic Ocean, shy-type albatrosses (cauta-type) made up 25% of all birds observed in association with vessels, mostly immatures. Five individuals caught as bycatch were confirmed as T. steadi, but numbers caught were not sufficient to predict an overall bycatch level for the fleet (Jimenez et al. 2009). Commercial exploitation of squid or fish reserves in Bass Strait could pose a threat to the species in the future by direct competition for food. On Auckland Island, the nesting area was significantly reduced during 1972-1982 because of interference by pigs, and feral cats may also take small numbers of chicks (Croxall and Gales 1998, Taylor 2000, Thompson and Sagar 2006).


Conservation actions underway
CMS Appendix II and ACAP Annex 1. A five-year aerial survey program of the Disappointment Island population commenced in 2006-2007. The New Zealand Department of Conservation has recently contracted the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research to conduct demographic and tracking study of the Auckland Islands populations.

Conservation actions proposed
Census populations on all New Zealand islands. Conduct regular monitoring of a representative proportion of the population. Determine the at-sea distribution of the species through tracking studies and the interaction with longline and trawl fisheries (BirdLife International 2004). Promote the adoption of a) monitoring of seabird bycatch associated with longline and trawl fishing and b) best-practice mitigation measures in all fisheries within the species range, including via intergovernmental mechanisms such as ACAP, the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission and FAO.

Related state of the world's birds case studies

• Trawl fisheries cause significant mortality to albatrosses along the west coast of southern Africa

References
Jiménez, S.; Domingo, A.; Marquez, A.; Abreu, M.; D'Anatro, A.; Pereira, A. 2009. Interactions of long-line fishing with seabirds in the south-western Atlantic Ocean, with a focus on White-capped Albatrosses (Thalassarche steadi). Emu 109: 321-326.

Croxall, J. P.; Gales, R. 1998. Assessment of the conservation status of albatrosses. In: Robertson, G.; Gales, R. (ed.), Albatross biology and conservation, pp. 46-65. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton, Australia.

Gales, R.; Brothers, N.; Reid, T. 1998. Seabird mortality in the Japanese tuna longline fishery around Australia, 1988-1995. Biological Conservation 86: 37-56.

Robertson, C. J. R.; Nunn, G. B. 1998. Towards a new taxonomy for albatrosses. In: Robertson, G.; Gales, R. (ed.), Albatross biology and conservation, pp. 13-19. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton, Australia.

Tennyson, A.; Imber, M.; Taylor, R. 1998. Numbers of Black-browed Mollymawks (Diomedea m. melanophrys) and White-capped Mollymawks (D. cauta steadi) at the Antipodes Islands in 1994-95 and their population trends in the New Zealand region. Notornis 45: 157-166.

Abbott, C. L.; Double, M. C. 2003. Phylogeography of shy and white-capped albatrosses inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequences: implications for population history and taxonomy. Molecular Ecology 12(10): 2747-2758.

Double, M. C.; Gales, R.; Reid, T.; Brothers, N.; Abbott, C. L. 2003. Morphometric comparison of Australian shy and New Zealand white-capped albatrosses. Emu 103: 287-294.

Taylor, G. A. 2000. Action plan for seabird conservation in New Zealand. Department of Conservation, Wellington.

Garnett, S. T.; Crowley, G. M. 2000. The action plan for Australian birds 2000. Environment Australia, Canberra.

Ryan, P. G.; Keith, D. G.; Kroese, M. 2002. Seabird bycatch by tuna longline fisheries off southern Africa, 1998-2000. South African Journal of Marine Science 24: 103.

Brooke, M. De L. 2004. Albatrosses and petrels across the world. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

BirdLife International. 2004. Tracking ocean wanderers: the global distribution of albatrosses and petrels. BirdLife International, Cambridge, U.K.

Thompson, D. R.; Sagar, P. M. 2006. Conduct a population and distributional study on White-capped Albatross at the Auckland Islands.

Thompson, D. R.; Sagar, P. M. 2007. Conduct a population and distributional study on White-capped Albatross at the Auckland Islands.

Baker, G. B.; Double, M. C.; Gales, R.; Tuck, G. N.; Abbott, C. L.; Ryan, P. G.; Petersen, S. L.; Robertson, C. J. R.; Alderman, R. 2007. A global assessment of the impact of fisheries-related mortality on Shy and White-capped Albatrosses: conservation implications. Biological Conservation 137(3): 319-333.

Robertson, C. J. R.; Bell, D.; Sinclair, N.; Bell, B. D. 2003. Distribution of seabirds from New Zealand that overlap with fisheries worldwide.

Watkins, B. P.; Petersen, S. L.; Ryan, P. G. 2007. Interactions between seabirds and deep-water hake trawl gear: an assessment of impacts in South African waters.

Hedd, A.; Gales, R.; Brothers, N. 2001. Foraging strategies of Shy Albatross Thalassarche cauta breeding at Albatross Island, Tasmania, Australia. Marine Ecology Progress Series 224: 267-282.

Abbot, C. L.; Double, M. C.; Gales, R.; Baker, G. B.; Lashko, A.; Robertson, C. J. R.; Ryan, P. G. 2006. Molecular provenance analysis for Shy and White-capped Albatrosses killed by fisheries interactions in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. Conservation Genetics 7: 531-542.

Phalan, B.; Phillips, R. A.; Double, M. C. 2004. A White-capped Albatross, Thalassarche [cuata] steadi, at South Georgia: first confirmed record in the south-western Atlantic. Emu 104(4): 359-361.

Petersen, S. L. 2004. Initial bycatch assessment: South Africa’s domestic pelagic longline fishery, 2002-2003.

White, R. W.; Gillon, K. W.; Black, A. D.; Reid, J. B. 2002. The distribution of seabirds and marine mammals in Falkland Islands waters.

Petersen, S. L.; Phillips, R. A.; Ryan, P. G.; Underhill, L. G. 2008. Albatross overlap with fisheries in the Benguela Upwelling System: implications for conservation and management. Endangered Species Research 5(2/3): 117-127.

ACAP. 2009. ACAP Species Assessment: White-capped Albatross Thalassarche steadi. Available at: #http://www.acap.aq/acap-species/download-document/1209-white-capped-albatross.

Further web sources of information
Additional information is available on the distribution of the White-capped Albatross from the Global Procellariiform Tracking Database (http://www.seabirdtracking.org)

Australian Govt - Action Plan for Australian Birds 2000 - Recovery Outline

Text account compilers
Anderson, O., Bird, J., Butchart, S., Calvert, R., Small, C., Sullivan, B., Symes, A.

Contributors
Double, M., Gales, R., Robertson, C., Ryan, P., Scofield, P., Watkins, B.

IUCN Red List evaluators
Butchart, S., Taylor, J.

Recommended citation
BirdLife International (2013) Species factsheet: Thalassarche steadi. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 19/06/2013. Recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species: BirdLife International (2013) IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 19/06/2013.

This information is based upon, and updates, the information published in BirdLife International (2000) Threatened birds of the world. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004 CD-ROM and BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008 CD-ROM. These sources provide the information for species accounts for the birds on the IUCN Red List.

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Additional resources for this species

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