Justification This species has been retained as Endangered because although there is uncertainty regarding population trends it has a very small and severely fragmented range, which continues to decline in area and quality of habitat. However if predictions of rate of decline based on recent demographic variables prove to be correct, it may require uplisting to Critically Endangered in the near future.

Family/Sub-family Fringillidae

Species name author (Gmelin, 1789)

Taxonomic source(s) AOU checklist (1998 + supplements), Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993)

Identification 10 cm. Small, finch-like bird whose crossed bill tips are not apparent in the field. Adult male brilliant red-orange with dusky wings and tail. Straw-yellow bill. Female dull greyish-green, darker above, with yellow-orange tinge to breast, no black in lores. Immature males begin like female and become gradually more orange as they mature. Similar spp. Hawai`i Creeper Oreomystis mana resembles female, but has darker face and very different behaviour. Dull-plumaged Hawai`i `Amakihi Hemignathus virens has curved bill, dark lores. Voice Song a slow, lackadaisical trill that changes pitch and speed. Call a distinctive cheedle-ee.

Population estimate

Population trend

Range estimate (breeding/resident)

Country endemic?

14,000

decreasing

390 km²

Yes

Range & population Loxops coccineus is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (USA). On Hawai`i, the only remaining subspecies (L. c. coccineus) occurs in three populations totalling c.14,000 individuals. The core populations have been stable, with peripheral ones declining, and one on Hualalai Volcano has apparently disappeared since 1978<sup>3,5,8</sup>. A comparison of data collected in 1987-1993 and 1999-2005 from Hakalau National Wildlife Refuge, Hawai`i, indicates a decline in the population, a reduction in nesting success and survival of fledglings and, in birds younger than two years, a very male biased sex ratio (almost 10:1)¹³. Although other surveys have found no evidence for a decline between 1987 and 2005¹⁴, these demographic data may cause it to decline rapidly in the near future. On Maui, subspecies ochraceus is extinct¹, it was last recorded in 1988^3,8,10. On O`ahu, subspecies wolstenholmei is also extinct³.

Ecology: It inhabits wet and mesic forest, primarily of koa-`ohi`a at 1,100-2,100 m (mostly above 1,500 m)^3,8. On Hawai`i, it is an obligate cavity-nester and the highest densities are in old-growth forests, although it is also numerous in some disturbed forests with sufficient large trees. It feeds on small insects (including caterpillars) and spiders<sup>3</sup>, and forages in the foliage of `ohi`a trees Metrosideros polymorpha¹³.

Threats Its habitat has been destroyed by logging and agriculture, and by commensal animals which have invaded montane forests^3,6,8. The slow growth of `ohi`a trees suggests that the large trees used for nesting are very old and so may take a long time to replace¹². Research has demonstrated that structural changes to habitat have affected food availability for this species¹¹. Avian diseases are readily transmitted by introduced mosquitoes whose spread is facilitated by feral pigs^2,6. Introduced birds are reservoirs for diseases, and potential competitors for food^3,6,8. Introduced rats, cats, Barn Owls Tyto alba and possibly small Indian mongooses Herpestes auropunctatus are predators³. An outbreak of introduced yellow-jacket wasps coincided with a year of poor reproductive success, and introduced ants probably also compete for native arthropods at lower elevations³. A decline between 1987-1993 and 1999-2005 in the Hakalau Wildlife Refuge was accompanied by reductions in nesting succcess and the survival rates of fledglings and adults of both sexes¹³. A bias in fledgling survival in favour of males has been documented, and between 1999 and 2005 the sex ratio of second year birds was 29 males to 3 females. If this continues there may be no females left by 2015. The time to extinction would be accelerated by any increase in avian malaria. The species's decline since 1999 has been associated with a significant increase in numbers of the introduced Japanese White-eye Zosterops japonicus. It is thought that competition for food resources exists between the species and Z. japonicus, and that L. coccineus is particularly susceptible to competition compared to other native species that occupy similar niches. The Hakalau National Wildlife Refuge has chosen not to manage Z. japonicus, and has requested that all artificial nesting cavities be removed, even though they resulted in higher nesting success¹³.

Conservation measures underway On Hawai`i, a large population is protected at Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge and, to a lesser extent, in Ka`u Forest Reserve, Kulani Prison, Kilauea-Keauhou forests, Kona Forest National Wildlife Refuge and Pu`u Wa`awa`a State Wildlife Preserve^3,9. Fencing, removal of feral pigs and cattle, and planting of koa seedlings and other native plants have all been carried out¹². Artificial nest-cavities and nest-boxes have been erected³ and, in 1999 and 2000, c.10% of 60-70 boxes were used successfully⁴. Captive propagation techniques have been developed in case they are needed to re-establish wild populations¹². The species has been studied continuously at Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge since 1987¹³.

Conservation measures proposed Research potential limiting factors. Research response to habitat restoration³. Preserve unprotected native forests above the zone where mosquitoes occur⁷. Control rodents to reduce competition for nest-sites and to reduce predation of chicks and eggs from artificial boxes². Investigate whether the species is in competiton with Zosterops japonicus. Control Z. japonicus. Address bias in sex ratio, perhaps with release of captive-bred birds.

References 1. H. Baker and P. Baker in litt. (2000). 2. Jacobi and Atkinson (1995). 3. Lepson and Freed (1997). 4. J. Lepson in litt. (2000). 5. Pratt (1993). 6. Pratt (1994). 7. Ralph and Fancy (1994). 8. Scott et al. (1986). 9. J. M. Scott in litt. (1999). 10. Stone and Loope (1987). 11. Fretz (2002). 12. USFWS (2003). 13. Anon. (2005). 14. R. Camp in litt. (2007).

Further web sources of information

Audubon WatchList

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service - Revised Recovery Plan for Hawaiian Forest Birds 2006 Loxops coccineus coccineus

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service - Revised Recovery Plan for Hawaiian Forest Birds 2006 Loxops coccineus ochraceus

Text account compilers Phil Benstead (BirdLife International), David Capper (BirdLife International), Matt Harding (BirdLife International), Isabel Isherwood (BirdLife International), Simon Mahood (BirdLife International), Alison Stattersfield (BirdLife International), Tom Stuart (BirdLife International), Joe Taylor (BirdLife International)

Contributors Helen C. Baker (US Fish & Wildlife Service), Paul E Baker (US Fish & Wildlife Service), Rick Camp (US Geological Survey), Leonard Freed, Scott Fretz (Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife), Marcos Gorresen (US Geological Survey), Jaan Lepson, J. Michael Scott, Eric VanderWerf (US Fish & Wildlife Service), Bethany Woodworth (US Geological Survey)

IUCN Red List evaluators Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International), Simon Mahood (BirdLife International), Joe Taylor (BirdLife International)

Recommended citation BirdLife International (2009) Species factsheet: Loxops coccineus. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 9/2/2010

This information is based upon, and updates, the information published in BirdLife International (2000) Threatened birds of the world. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004 CD-ROM and BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008 CD-ROM. These sources provide the information for species accounts for the birds on the IUCN Red List.

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