Justification This species has been uplisted to Critically Endangered because since 2005 it has suffered extremely rapid declines which are projected to continue at a rate equivalent to 97% over three generations (14 years). Drivers of declines are habitat degradation by introduced ungulates, predation by introduced cats, competition for caterpillar food from introduced parasitoid wasps and a recent drought that may have reduced mamane pod production.

Family/Sub-family Fringillidae

Species name author (Oustalet, 1877)

Taxonomic source(s) AOU checklist (1998 + supplements), Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993)

Identification 19 cm. Large finch with short, rounded bill. Male has golden-yellow head and breast surrounding black lores and bill, blue-grey back and rump, white underparts, and dark wing and tail feathers with broad, golden edges. Female less golden and with grey of back extending forward on hindneck to crown. Similar spp. Introduced yellow morph of House Finch Carpodacus mexicanus has streaks on back and belly, yellow on rump. Introduced Yellow-fronted Canary Serinus mozambicus has grey nape, yellow underparts and rump, and bold facial markings. Both smaller. Voice Quiet, sweet canary-like song. Call a sweet chee-klee-o or pa-lee-la. Hints Best looked for at Pu`u La`au on Hawai`i.

Population estimate

Population trend

Range estimate (breeding/resident)

Country endemic?

2,640

decreasing

130 km²

Yes

Range & population Loxioides bailleui is restricted to Hawai`i in the Hawaiian Islands (USA), where it was abundant, though locally distributed, until the beginning of the 20th century. Evidence from the fossil record suggests that the species occurred throughout the archipelago prior to human settlement¹³. In 1997, it occupied an estimated 78 km² and numbered 4,396 birds, mostly on the west slope of Mauna Kea, where 20.5 km² was estimated to hold 72% of the total population^2,3,7. Comparison of annual counts from 1980-2007 suggests that the population size has historically been subject to fluctuations (1,007 to 6,356 individuals), but since 2003 it has undergone a consistent and rapid decline (58 % in the core population between 2003-2007 and projected to reach 96.6 % over three generations or 14 years)¹⁷. In 2007, the population was estimated at 3,866 (95% CI, 3,134-4,750) individuals¹³, with preliminary data from 2008 indicating a further reduction to 2,640 individuals¹⁷. The species's range is centered on the west slope, and it has contracted such that it has not been found in annual surveys on the east slope since 2004^13,14. A small colony of around 23 individuals has been established on the north slope through translocation and release of captive-bred birds, but it is not self-sustaining at present¹³.

Ecology: It is confined to c.2,000-3,000 m, favouring dry mamane and mamane-naio forest. It feeds primarily on mamane seeds, flowers, and insects², with the availability of mamane seeds affecting productivity and adult survival. In drought years, most birds do not attempt to breed^4,5. The species exhibits low rates of reproduction¹¹, laying fewer eggs and taking longer to raise its young compared with mainland songbirds¹².

Threats The most significant declines in this species's range and population are thought to have been caused by human-induced habitat loss and degradation and predation by introduced rats prior to Western settlement¹³. Continued habitat loss from ungulates and forest clearing, predation from other mammalian predators, and exposure to avian malaria are likely to have been the most important historical factors¹³. The subalpine forest habitat of this species has been severely overbrowsed by feral and domestic ungulates, and nests and adults are preyed upon by Short-eared Owls Asio flammeus sandwichensis, Hawaiian Hawks Buteo solitarius and feral cats, with introduced black rats Rattus rattus, which are very scarce in dry forest, probably only depredating nests¹³. Up to 11% of nests are depredated by feral cats each year¹². Food shortages may account for high losses of eggs and chicks at the end of the breeding season². Grazing by cattle was a historical factor in the species's decline, although cattle are now limited to pastures that are unsuitable for L. bailleui¹³. Introduced grasses suppress mamane regeneration and potentially increase the threat of fire. Alien grass cover is high in much of the species's range¹¹. Increasing human activities, such as military training, could further increase the chances of fire¹³. In 2006-2007, there were numerous fires on and near Mauna Kea. A fire in the species's core area could potentially affect 50-90% of the population¹³. The recent opening of trails for All-Terrain Vehicles (ATVs) in the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve is a concern¹³, and may cause disturbance and habitat degradation. Continuing threats include grazing by feral sheep, wild sheep Ovis gmelini musimon, and their hybrids, which slows mamane regeneration^5,11,13, and alien insects preying on and parasitising native insects^5,11, particularly at low elevations¹¹. Native caterpillars are an important source of protein for nestlings, and possibly breeding females, however they are preyed upon by voracious yellow-jacket wasps Vespula pensylvanica and several ant species, particularly Argentine ants Linepithema humile, whilst parasitoid wasps kill the caterpillars by laying their eggs on or inside them¹¹. In addition to the aforementioned threats, this species's very restricted range means it could be extirpated by extreme events such as drought and storms¹¹. Drought is thought to be contributing to the species's recent decline¹³. Demographic patterns of mamane mortality are under investigation, as mamane may be under threat from pathogens¹⁰. Climate change may pose a long-term future threat to the species, as a projected 2^oC rise in regional temperatures and increased precipitation in high elevation forests late in the next century would nearly eliminate the area of remaining habitat in Hakalau Wildlife Refuge in which there is a low-risk of malaria development and transmission¹⁶.

Conservation measures underway The species's population has been monitored since 1980¹¹. In 1979 and 1986, federal courts ordered the eradication of feral goats and feral and wild sheep species from the species's habitat on Mauna Kea, and these rulings have remained in effect despite six legal challenges^11,14. Forest regeneration has improved as a result, although current efforts to reduce sheep have not been sufficient to allow the complete recovery of mamane forests¹¹. Despite such efforts, the species's strong site-tenacity might prevent recolonisation of areas of recovered forest. In 1993, some birds were translocated to a new site where predators were controlled and, although many homed back to their capture site, at least two pairs stayed and bred successfully³. Six additional translocations have taken place since, and by the end of 2006, 188 wild birds had been translocated from the western to the northern slope of Mauna Kea¹³. Approximately 36% persisted for longer than two months, and as of July 2007 a small colony of about 23 birds remains on the northern slope. Egg-laying occurred in 2004, and independent juveniles have been produced in every subsequent year (2005-2007)¹³. In 1996, a captive breeding programme was initiated at the Keauhou Bird Conservation Center^10,11. Of 21 captive-reared birds released in 2003-2005, at least ten persisted in the reintroduction area for at least one year, with two males remaining in the north slope colony as of July 2007¹³. The construction of a highway through unoccupied, federally designated critical habitat was approved in 1999. A mitigation plan accompanied the development, including the temporary suspension of cattle grazing in pastures adjacent to the species's range. The species's conservation is the subject of detailed research, and funding from the mitigation plan supported translocation research and enabled the expansion or continuation of studies into the species's ecology and limiting factors, mamane ecology, food availability, predator ecology and managment, and fire ecology. Habitat restoration and research into restoration methods are ongoing¹⁵. Hawai`i State and federal agencies have begun programmes to control cats and rats^5,9. Goats have been virtually removed from Mauna Kea¹³.

Conservation measures proposed Establish protocols and make preparations to control fire⁵. Intensify control of mammalian predators (especially feral cats) and grazing ungulates^1,5,6,14. Continue to expand the application of translocations and captive propagation for introducing the species to currently unoccupied sites within the former range^5,13. Reforest areas adjacent to the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve and areas where alien grasses and grazing threaten mamane⁵. Carry out forest restoration research to find ways to accelerate the rehabilitation and regeneration of mamane trees within the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve^11,13. Remove and fence-out ungulates from all critical habitat and the mitigation parcels^11,13. Continue to restore forest above Hakalau Wildlife Refuge¹⁶.

References 1. H. Baker and P. Baker in litt. (1999). 2. Banko et al. (1998). 3. Fancy et al. (1997). 4. Jacobi et al. (1996). 5. Pratt et al. (1997). 6. T. Pratt in litt. (1999). 7. Scott et al. (1986). 8. J. M. Scott in litt. (1999). 9. E. VanderWerf in litt. (1999). 10. USFWS (2003). 11. Banko (2006). 12. Hess and Banko (2006). 13. C. Farmer in litt. (2007). 14. P. Banko in litt. (2007). 15. D. Leonard in litt. (2007). 16. Benning et al. (2002). 17. Leonard et al. (2008).

Further web sources of information

Audubon WatchList

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service - Revised Recovery Plan for Hawaiian Forest Birds 2006

Text account compilers Phil Benstead (BirdLife International), David Capper (BirdLife International), Matt Harding (BirdLife International), Alison Stattersfield (BirdLife International), Tom Stuart (BirdLife International), Andy Symes (BirdLife International), Joe Taylor (BirdLife International)

Contributors Helen C. Baker (US Fish & Wildlife Service), Paul E Baker (US Fish & Wildlife Service), Paul Banko (US Geological Survey), Dusti Becker (Maui Forest Bird Recovery Project), Kevin Brinck (US Geological Survey), Rick Camp (US Geological Survey), Chris Farmer (US Geological Survey), Scott Fretz (Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife), Marcos Gorresen (US Geological Survey), David Leonard (Dept of Land and Natural Resources, Hawaii), Thane Pratt (US Geological Survey), J. Michael Scott (University of Idaho), Eric VanderWerf (Pacific Rim Conservation), Bethany Woodworth (US Geological Survey)

IUCN Red List evaluators Jeremy Bird (BirdLife International), Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International), Andy Symes (BirdLife International)

Recommended citation BirdLife International (2009) Species factsheet: Loxioides bailleui. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 10/2/2010

This information is based upon, and updates, the information published in BirdLife International (2000) Threatened birds of the world. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004 CD-ROM and BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008 CD-ROM. These sources provide the information for species accounts for the birds on the IUCN Red List.

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