Justification This species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence <20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). The population size is extremely large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern.

Family/Sub-family Anatidae

Species name author (Linnaeus, 1758)

Taxonomic source(s) AERC TAC (2003), AOU checklist (1998 + supplements), Cramp and Simmons (1977-1994), Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993), Stotz et al. (1996)

Population estimate

Population trend

Range estimate (breeding/resident)

Country endemic?

1,700,000 - 3,000,000

unset

17,100,000 km²

No

Important Bird Areas Click here to view map showing IBAs where species is recorded and triggers any of the IBA criteria.

Ecology: Behaviour This species is highly migratory^{1, 3} and breeds from mid-May onwards³ in solitary pairs or loose groups^{1, 2}, occasionally nesting in association with gull or tern colonies². Non-breeding birds spend the breeding season in flocks on open water⁶. After breeding (from June onwards)⁵ the adults migrate to moulting sites (males travelling and moulting before the females)³ where they become flightless for 3-4 weeks⁵. When moulting and overwintering the species is highly sociable and can occur in large flocks^{3, 5} of several thousands of individuals⁵ although it is more common in small scattered groups of c.100 individuals⁷. The species mainly forages by diving and may feed at depths of 30-40 m during the winter¹. Habitat Breeding The species breeds on wooded coastlines^{2, 4}, small freshwater lakes^{1, 2, 7}, pools and rivers⁷ in northern coniferous forests^{1, 2, 4, 7}, wooded Arctic tundra^{1, 7} and alpine zones^{2, 7}, especially where there are boulder-covered or small rocky islands available for nesting with extensive herbaceous vegetation, shrubs and low trees^{2, 4}. Non-breeding The majority winter at sea on shallow inshore coastal waters^{1, 3}, especially in estuaries or inlets where there are large mussel-beds⁷. The species may also occur on freshwater lakes and estuaries during migration^{2, 3}. Diet Its diet consists predominantly of molluscs, as well as crustaceans, worms, echinoderms¹, amphipods, isopods², small fish, and (in freshwater habitats) adult and larval insects¹. The species may also consume plant material on its breeding grounds¹ (e.g. leaves and shoots)⁶. Breeding site The nest is a shallow depression positioned on the ground¹ in tall grass, among hummocks or under bushes⁶ usually within 100 m of open water (occasionally up to 2-3 km away)². The species usually nests in solitary pairs^{1, 2} but it may form loose congregations¹ (e.g. on islands)² with neighbouring nests as close as 3 m apart⁷, and will also nest in association with gull or tern colonies². It has been known to use artificial nestboxes³. Management information Experimental removal (extermination) of the nest predator American mink Neovison vison in the outer archipelago of south-west Finland resulted in an increase in the breeding density of this species¹⁰.

Threats Moulting and wintering concentrations of this species are highly vulnerable to oil spills and other marine pollutants^{1, 2, 13} (an oil spill could destroy a large proportion of the global population if it occurred in a key moulting or wintering area)³. The species is also vulnerable to the effects of commercial exploitation of marine benthic organisms and shellfish², and is threatened by drowning in fishing nets^{1, 2}. It is threatened by habitat degradation as a result of the human exploitation of natural resources in the taiga and lower tundra regions of its breeding range² and by lake drainage for irrigation and hydroelectric power production (Armenia)¹¹. It is vulnerable to disturbance from tourism in remote coastal and freshwater habitats in its breeding range², as well as disturbance from wind farms (wind turbines)¹². The species suffers predation from American mink Neovison vison on islands¹⁰ and is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus⁸. Utilisation The species is hunted in Denmark⁹.

References 1. del Hoyo et al. (1992). 2. Kear (2005b). 3. Madge and Burn (1988). 4. Johnsgard (1978). 5. Scott and Rose (1996). 6. Flint et al. (1984). 7. Snow and Perrins (1998). 8. Melville and Shortridge (2006). 9. Bregnballe et al. (2006). 10. Nordstrom et al. (2002). 11. Balian et al. (2002). 12. Garthe and Huppop (2004). 13. Gorski et al. (1977).

Further web sources of information

Detailed species account from Birds in Europe: population estimates, trends and conservation status (BirdLife International 2004)

Text account compilers Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International), Jonathan Ekstrom (BirdLife International), Lucy Malpas (BirdLife International)

Contributors Stefan Pihl

IUCN Red List evaluators Jeremy Bird (BirdLife International), Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International)

Recommended citation BirdLife International (2009) Species factsheet: Melanitta fusca. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 9/2/2010

This information is based upon, and updates, the information published in BirdLife International (2000) Threatened birds of the world. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004 CD-ROM and BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008 CD-ROM. These sources provide the information for species accounts for the birds on the IUCN Red List.

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