Justification This species has undergone extreme population size fluctuations, close to one order of magnitude at major colonies in Chile. However, an overall reduction in the number of breeding colonies indicates that there is probably an ongoing, underlying rapid decline in numbers. It consequently qualifies as Vulnerable.

Family/Sub-family Spheniscidae

Species name author Meyen, 1834

Taxonomic source(s) SACC (2005 + updates), Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993), Stotz et al. (1996)

Identification 65 cm. Medium-sized, black-and-white penguin. Black head with white border extending from eye around ear-coverts and chin, and joining on throat. Blackish-grey upperparts. Whitish underparts with black breast-band extending down flanks to thigh. Fleshy-pink base to bill. Juvenile has wholly dark head (greyer on sides and chin) and lacks breast-band. Similar spp. Magellanic Penguin S. magellanicus has broader white stripe on head and has more than one breast-band.

Population estimate

Population trend

Range estimate (breeding/resident)

Country endemic?

3,300 - 12,000

decreasing

796,000 km²

No

Range & population Spheniscus humboldti occurs in coastal Peru and Chile with vagrants recorded north to Colombia⁷. It has been declining since the mid-19th century, but the 1982-1983 El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) reduced the population from 19,000-21,000 birds to 5,180-6,080^3,4,5. By 1995-1996, this had increased to 10,000-12,000 birds¹. The 1997-1998 ENSO resulted in further declines to 3,300 birds⁶. In Peru, the number of colonies declined from 17 in 1981 to two in 1996³, but had recovered to six by 1999⁸. In 2000, 78% of the total Peruvian population of 4,425 birds was clustered in just five colonies¹³. A survey in 2004 estimated a total population of around 5,000 individuals, with birds present at 21 sites, 16 of which were considered breeding sites, although only 6 of these held more than 200 birds¹⁴. The size and distribution of colonies in Peru changed considerably during the period 1984-1999, with proportionally more on the southern coast and fewer in the North and central coastal areas in 1999¹³. In Chile, it has bred at 14 sites, but at only 10 recently³. Surveys in 2002 found nesting at 9 islands, with a total population of 9,000 pairs, 7,000 of which were at Chañaral Island. A repeat visit to Chañaral in 2003 recorded 20,000 individuals, mostly moulting¹⁵. In 1998, a population and habitat viability analysis suggested that extinction was likely within 100 years¹.

Important Bird Areas Click here to view map showing IBAs where species is recorded and triggers any of the IBA criteria.

Ecology: It nests on islands and rocky coastal stretches, burrowing holes in guano and occasionally using scrape nests or caves^1,3. It apparently prefers to breed on slopes at high elevation sites where guano deposits are available for burrow excavation¹¹. Breeding occurs year-round, but has two peaks, in May and July and from September to December. Reproductive success is reported as low, especially in Chile¹, though considerably higher at one rookery in Peru (Punta San Juan)¹¹. There may be an extended migration route of c.700 km from Peru to north Chile, and adult birds regularly disperse up to 170 km in Peru^2,12, and occasionally over 600 km ^2,12. It feeds on schooling anchoveta Engraulis ringens, squid and others small fish, mainly caught in inshore waters, with failed breeders traveling further afield, as do breeders during ENSO years ¹⁶.

Threats The primary threats for this species are mortality caused by entanglement in artisanal fishery nets, illegal capture for consumption and the pet trade¹⁴. Historical declines resulted from over-exploitation of guano¹⁰. Guano is still "harvested" in Peru, and likely limits the availability of preferred nesting habitat¹¹. Severe fluctuations in numbers are caused by (apparently increasing) ENSO events, and more recent underlying declines probably relate to over-fishing of anchoveta Engraulis spp. stocks^1,10,12. Other threats include capture for use as fish bait, use of explosives by fisherman, mining activities, human disturbance, predation by Andean fox, rats and cats, and marine pollution^{1,3, 15}.

Conservation measures underway CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I. In Chile, there is a 30-year moratorium (from 1995) on hunting and capture, and the four major colonies (not including intertidal and marine areas) are protected^1,9. In Peru, 12 of the principal colonies are legally protected by the government institute managing guano extraction¹⁴. There are walls and guards at some sites, and extraction is designed to have a minimal impact at Punta San Juan^1,6.

Conservation measures proposed Monitor the population throughout its breeding range³. Protect breeding sites and regulate guano harvesting³. Create marine reserves around colonies³. Establish awareness programmes around key colonies to reduce hunting and bycatch^{3, 14}. Reduce fish harvests around major colonies¹⁴ and elsewhere during ENSO events³. Improve waste treatment in coastal regions³.

References 1. Cheney (1998). 2. Culik and Luna-Jorquera (1997). 3. Ellis et al. (1998). 4. Hays (1984). 5. Hays (1986). 6. P. Majluf in litt. (1999). 7. Morales Sanchez (1988). 8. T. Valqui in litt. (1999). 9. Vilina et al. (1995). 10. Williams, T. D. (1995). 11. Paredes and Zavalaga (2001). 12. Wallace et al. (1999). 13. Paredes et al. (2003). 14. American Bird Conservancy in litt. (2007). 15. Ayala et al. (2007) 16. Taylor et al. (2004)

Text account compilers Phil Benstead (BirdLife International), Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International), David Capper (BirdLife International), Rob P Clay (Guyra Paraguay), Ben Lascelles (BirdLife International)

Contributors P. Majluf, Milena Roca, T. Valqui (Gran Peru Bird Tours)

IUCN Red List evaluators Jeremy Bird (BirdLife International), Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International), Esteban Frere (Wildlife Conservation Society), Esteban Frere (BirdLife International)

Recommended citation BirdLife International (2009) Species factsheet: Spheniscus humboldti. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 10/2/2010

This information is based upon, and updates, the information published in BirdLife International (2000) Threatened birds of the world. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004 CD-ROM and BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008 CD-ROM. These sources provide the information for species accounts for the birds on the IUCN Red List.

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