Justification This species is listed as Near Threatened owing to its moderately small population size and ongoing declines resulting from a variety of threats. Further quantitative estimates of the rate of decline may qualify the species for Vulnerable.

Family/Sub-family Anatidae

Species name author (Eyton, 1838)

Taxonomic source(s) Dowsett and Forbes-Watson (1993), Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993)

Identification 46-51 cm. Male has a black head extending to the hindneck and throat. Bright blue bill. Chestnut body and short, stiff black tail often held erect. The female is largely brown with a pale throat and cheek stripe below the eye and faintly barred flanks. Simal spp. No similar species within the range.

Population estimate

Population trend

Range estimate (breeding/resident)

Country endemic?

9,000 - 11,800

decreasing

4,190,000 km²

No

Range & population Oxyura maccoa has a large range, with the global population estimated to be 9,000-11,750 individuals and divided into a northern population occurring in Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania, and a southern population found in Angola, Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Zimbabwe¹. South Africa supports the largest national population with 4,500-5,500 individuals¹. The total population for southern Africa is approximately 7,000-8,250 individuals. In East Africa and Ethiopia the main populations occur in Ethiopia (500-2,000) and Kenya (1,000), with an estimated 2,000-3,500 individuals in total¹.

Important Bird Areas Click here to view map showing IBAs where species is recorded and triggers any of the IBA criteria.

Ecology: Behaviour This species is mainly sedentary³ but undertakes some small-scale post-breeding dispersive movements in search of suitable habitat during the dry season³. It is not thought to cover distances greater than 500km¹. Breeding has been recorded in South Africa from July to April, with a peak during the wet season months of September to November⁴. Further north breeding has been recorded in all months, and appears to be dependent upon rainfall¹. Breeding occurs in single pairs or loose groups⁶, with a density of up to 30 birds per 100 hectares⁵ and with males defending territories as large as 900 square metres^4,5. During the non-breeding season the species is more congregatory¹, forming flocks of up to 1000 individuals³. Habitat Breeding During the breeding season it inhabits small temporary and permanent inland freshwater lakes¹, preferring those that are shallow and nutrient-rich^4,5 with extensive emergent vegetation such as reeds (Phragmites spp.) and cattails (Typha spp.) ⁵ on which it relies for nesting. It prefers areas with a bottom of mud or silt and minimal amounts of floating vegetation, since this provides the best foraging conditions⁵. It also breeds on man-made habitats, such as small farm wetlands in Namibia, and sewage-farm basins^4,5. Non-breeding Outside the breeding season it will wander over larger, deeper lakes and brackish lagoons^1,6. It is thought to find refuge on the larger lakes while moulting¹. Diet This species feeds primarily on benthic invertebrates including fly larvae (Diptera), Tubifex worms, Daphnia eggs and small fresh-water molluscs^4,5. It will also feed on algae, the seeds of Persicaria and Polygonum^1,4 , and the seeds and roots of other aquatic plants⁵. It forages by diving and straining the benthic substrate with its bill^4,6. Breeding Site The species tends to nest over deeper water among emergent vegetation¹. The nest is usually constructed from reeds and cattails that have been bent down to form a basin⁵, although old nests of Red-knobbed Coots Fulica cristata may sometimes be used.

Threats Currently the links between population trends and threats facing this species are poorly understood. Pollution is a primary concern, since the species feeds mainly on benthic invertebrates, and is therefore more vulnerable to bio-accumulation of pollutants than other duck species¹. Habitat loss as a result of the drainage and conversion of wetland areas for agriculture is also a significant threat¹, as are rapid changes in water level that result from landscape changes such as deforestation and can severely disrupt the breeding activity of the species¹. There is a high level of accidental mortality from entanglement in gill nets¹. Hunting and poaching, competition with alien benthic fish and habitat alteration by introduced plants all pose less serious threats¹.

Conservation measures underway In Kenya and Tanzania approximately 80% of the population is thought to occur in protected areas whereas in southern Africa this figure is much lower, with approximately 20% in South Africa and just 10% in Namibia¹.

Conservation measures proposed Protect key wetland sites from the threat of drainage or habitat conversion. Determine the impact of pollution on the population. Prevent exploitation of the species. Limit habitat modification by alien invasive plants. Assess the impact of competition from alien benthic fish.

References del Hoyo et al. (1992). 1. Berruti et al. (2005). 2. Simmons and Brown (2006).3. Kear (2005). 4. Johnsgard (1978). 5. Johnsgard and Carbonell (1996). 6. del Hoyo et al. (1992). 7. Berruti et al. (2007) Link to most recent (2007) Action Plan: http://www.unep-aewa.org/publications/technical_series/ts14_maccoa_duck_final.pdf

Further web sources of information

African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA) International Action Plan 2007

African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA) International Action Plan 2007

Text account compilers Phil Benstead (BirdLife International), Jeremy Bird (BirdLife International), Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International), Jonathan Ekstrom (BirdLife International), Paul K. Ndang'ang'a (BirdLife International - Africa), Joe Taylor (BirdLife International)

Contributors Aldo Berruti (African Gamebird, Research, Education and Dev Trst), Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International), Sergey Dereliev (African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement), Chris Hines (The Namibian Naturalist), Robert E. Simmons (FitzPatrick Institute, University of Cape Town), Stephanie Tyler (BirdLife Botswana)

IUCN Red List evaluators Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International), Joe Taylor (BirdLife International)

Recommended citation BirdLife International (2009) Species factsheet: Oxyura maccoa. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 9/2/2010

This information is based upon, and updates, the information published in BirdLife International (2000) Threatened birds of the world. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004 CD-ROM and BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008 CD-ROM. These sources provide the information for species accounts for the birds on the IUCN Red List.

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