Justification This species is listed as Near Threatened because it is experiencing a moderately rapid population decline, owing mostly to poisoning from pesticides and persecution, and changes in land-use amongst other threats. Despite the current rapid declines in southern Europe, if population increases in northern range states are sustained the species may qualify for downlisting in the future.

Family/Sub-family Accipitridae

Species name author (Linnaeus, 1758)

Taxonomic source(s) AERC TAC (2003), Cramp and Simmons (1977-1994), Dowsett and Forbes-Watson (1993), Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993)

Taxonomic note Milvus milvus (Sibley and Monroe 1990, 1993) was split into M. milvus and M. fasciicauda by Hazevoet (1995), but for reasons given in Johnson et al. (2005) this treatment has not been adopted by the BirdLife Taxonomic Working Group.

Population estimate

Population trend

Range estimate (breeding/resident)

Country endemic?

42,000 - 51,000

decreasing

1,160,000 km²

No

Range & population Milvus milvus is endemic to the Western Palearctic, with the European population of 19,000-23,000 pairs encompassing 95% of its global breeding range^1,17. It breeds from Spain and Portugal east through central Europe to Ukraine, north to southern Sweden, Latvia and the UK (890 pairs²⁰), and south to southern Italy. Populations winter within the western breeding range, and formerly in isolated patches south and east to eastern Turkey. It's status as a breeding and wintering species in North Africa is now uncertain. The three largest populations (in Germany, France and Spain, which together hold more than 75% of the global population) all declined during 1990-2000, and overall the species declined by almost 20% over that period¹. Eastern German populations declined by 25-30% between 1991 and 1997, but have remained stable since then^3,4, whereas in the federal state Saxony-Anhalt the decline continued until 2006¹⁷. The populations of the northern foothills of the Harz Mountains (the most densely populated part of its range) suffering an estimated 50% decline from 1991-2001⁵. In Spain, the species showed an overall decline in breeding population of 46% for the period 1994 to 2004, and surveys of wintering birds in 2004 suggest a decline of around 50% since 1994¹³; trends that have apparently continued in recent years²⁸. In France, breeding populations have decreased in the northeast, and in the north and east Massif Central, but seem to be stable in southwest and central France and Corsica^7,21. Detailed monitoring has not been carried out, but comparing counts from 1980 and 2000 suggests a decline of up to 80% in some areas, during which time the species's range in France decreased by 15%^7,8. Following surveys in 2000-2002, the breeding population in France has been estimated at 3,000-3,900 pairs²¹. A survey in January 2007 indicated that the wintering population in France numbered nearly 6,000 individuals, with most in the Pyrenees²¹. The Balearic Islands population declined from 41-47 breeding pairs in 1993 to just 10 in 2003⁶. However, conservation actions have since enabled the population to recover, to 38 breeding pairs in 2007¹⁴. Populations elsewhere are stable or increasing. In Switzerland, populations increased during the 1990s, and have now stabilised¹². The population in Belgium was estimated at 100-120 breeding pairs in 2005, following an increase from 1-2 irregular pairs in 1967¹⁵. In Sweden the species has increased from 30-50 pairs in the 1970s to 1,200 breeding pairs in 2003^9,10. The rate of increase in Sweden has been recorded as 7.1% annually during 1982-2006 or 13% annually during 1998-2006, depending on the survey method used¹⁶; and a rough calculation suggests that Sweden could support 5,000-10,000 pairs once the species has reached carrying capacity²⁴. Since an extreme low during the 20th Century the UK population has increased in recent decades and was estimated to number 1,350 breeding pairs in 2008²⁵. This population is still increasing rapidly and a long-term estimate for future carrying capacity is in the order of 10,000 pairs²⁴. Overall, the species population has declined in recent years owing to rapid declines in Iberia for resident breeding birds, and migrants that winter in Spain. Previously the majority of the global population wintered in Spain, but increasingly birds are remaining on their northern European breeding grounds. Those populations that winter outside of Spain are generally increasing. Therefore, while serious declines are expected to continue in southern Europe and therefore in the global population as a whole, as northern populations increase, it is anticipated that their growth will eventually outweigh declines in Iberia.

Important Bird Areas Click here to view map showing IBAs where species is recorded and triggers any of the IBA criteria.

Ecology: The species breeds in broadleaf woodlands and forests, mixed with farmland, pasture and heathland, to 2,500 m in Morocco¹⁹. In winter it also occupies wasteland, scrub and wetlands. Formerly an urban scavenger, it still visits the edges of towns and cities. It takes a wide range of food, but feeds mainly on carrion and small to medium-sized mammals and birds. Reptiles, amphibians and invertebrates are less important prey¹⁹.

Threats The most pertinent threat to this species is illegal direct poisoning and indirect poisoning from pesticides and rodent bait, particularly in the wintering ranges in France and Spain, where it is driving rapid population declines²⁶; there is a strong correlation between rapid declines and those populations that winter in Spain²⁹. The Spanish government released more than 1,500 tons of rodenticide-treated baits over about 500,000 ha to fight against a common vole plague in agricultural lands between August 2007 and April 2008; records of red kites dying by secondary poisoning in treated areas resulted²⁸. In France, populations have disappeared at the same rate as conversion from grasslands to cereal crops²⁷. Other less significant threats include electrocution and collision with powerlines²⁷ and wind-turbines²⁷, hunting and trapping²⁷, road-kills, deforestation, egg-collection (on a local scale) and possibly competition with the generally more successful Black Kite M. migrans^2,14,17,22. Another factor implicated in the declines in France and Spain is a decrease in the number of rubbish dumps^21,22.

Conservation measures underway The species is the focus of close monitoring and targeted conservation actions across most of its range, including reintroduction to parts of the UK since 1989^18,20. In 2007, for the first time, three young birds in France were fitted with satellite transmitters, although only one provided regular information²¹. In 2005, the species was listed as a priority for developing an EU species action plan; this plan is expected to be developed in 2009²³.

Conservation measures proposed Continue to monitor population trends and breeding productivity. Continue to manage reintroduction projects. Regulate the use of pesticides, especially in France and Spain. Reduce persecution through law enforcement, prosecutions and awareness campaigns. Carry out further studies into the impact of changing land-use practices. Lobby for changes in EU and national agricultural policies. Increase the area of suitable woodland and forest with protected status. Work with land-owners to protect habitat and prevent persecution.

References 1. BirdLife International (2004). 2. Ferguson-Lees et al. (2001). 3. Mammen (2000). 4. Mammen and Stubbe (2002). 5. Nicolai and Weihe (2001). 6. A. Madroño in litt. (2005). 7. A. Mionnet in litt. (2005). 8. Thiollay and Bretagnolle (2004). 9. L. Lindell in litt. (2005). 10. Å. Lindström in litt. (2005). 11. A. V. Cross in litt. (2005). 12. V. Keller in litt. (2005). 13. Cardiel (2006). 14. Cardiel in litt. (2007). 15. Defourny et al. (2007). 16. Å. Lindström in litt. (2007). 17. U. Mammen (2007). 18. English Nature (1995). 19. del Hoyo et al. (1994). 20. RSPB (2007). 21. Mionnet (2007). 22. Cardiel and Viñuela (2007). 23. B. Barov in litt. (2008). 24. N. Kjellén in litt. (2008). 25. P. Newberry in litt. (2008). 26. A. Aebischer in litt. (2009). 27. P. Tourret in litt. (2009). 28. J. Vinuela in litt. (2009). 29. Carter (2007).

Further web sources of information

Detailed species account from Birds in Europe: population estimates, trends and conservation status (BirdLife International 2004)

Text account compilers Jeremy Bird (BirdLife International), Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International), Jonathan Ekstrom (BirdLife International), James Hardcastle, Matt Harding (BirdLife International), Graeme A. Taylor (Department of Conservation), Joe Taylor (BirdLife International)

Contributors Adrian Aebischer, Iris Cardiel (Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Cinegéticos), Ian Carter (Natural England), Antony Cross (Welsh Kite Trust), Ana Ignacio (SEO/BirdLife), Verena Keller (Swiss Ornithological Institute), Lars Lindell (Sveriges Ornitologiska Förening), Åke Lindström (Dept. of Animal Ecology, Lund University), Alberto Madroño (Sociedad Española de Ornitología), Ubbo Mammen (Institut für Zoologie, Halle), Aymeric Mionnet (Ligue Pour La Protection des Oiseaux), Peter Newberry (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds), Heiko Seyer, Pierre Tourret (Ligue Pour La Protection des Oiseaux), Javier Vinuela

IUCN Red List evaluators Boris Barov (BirdLife International - European Division), Jeremy Bird (BirdLife International), Ian Burfield (BirdLife International - European Division), Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International)

Recommended citation BirdLife International (2009) Species factsheet: Milvus milvus. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 10/2/2010

This information is based upon, and updates, the information published in BirdLife International (2000) Threatened birds of the world. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004 CD-ROM and BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008 CD-ROM. These sources provide the information for species accounts for the birds on the IUCN Red List.

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