Justification This species is listed as Near Threatened because it is thought to be experiencing a moderately rapid overall population decline. It faces a variety of threats throughout its range, and evidence that the population decline is worsening might qualify the species for uplisting to a higher threat category.

Family/Sub-family Gruidae

Species name author (Linnaeus, 1758)

Taxonomic source(s) Dowsett and Forbes-Watson (1993), Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993)

Population estimate

Population trend

Range estimate (breeding/resident)

Country endemic?

43,000 - 70,000

unset

3,010,000 km²

No

Range & population Balearica pavonina occurs in disjunct sub-populations through the Sahel and Sudan-Guinea savanna zones of Africa, with records from as far south as the Democratic Republic of Congo, but was once more numerous and widespread. The eastern sub-population (B. p. ceciliae) may be stable (although there is some recent doubt³) and is relatively abundant, with 28,000-55,000 individuals⁵ (at least 80% in Sudan). However, the western sub-populations (B. p. pavonina) have declined in numbers to c.15,000 birds⁵, and there has been a dramatic range reduction over the last 20 years.

Important Bird Areas Click here to view map showing IBAs where species is recorded and triggers any of the IBA criteria.

Ecology: Behaviour The species is largely a resident, but undergoes local daily and seasonal movements of up to several dozen kilometres^{2, 3, 6}. It breeds during the wet season months of May to December in West Africa, and July to January in East Africa (subject to local seasonal variation)⁸, nesting in single pairs in territories 0.5-1 square kilometres⁸. During the dry (non-breeding) season it is more congregatory, forming large flocks of up to several hundred individuals^6,8. In southern Sudan it begins to flock along the Nile in November, reaching a peak in late February and March⁸. In Chad it gathers in concentrations after breeding, and then moves south⁸. In Nigeria it is subject to local movements with seasonal changes in water levels⁸. It forages singly, in pairs or in small groups⁸. Habitat Breeding This species is found in wet and dry open habitats, but prefers freshwater marshes, wet grasslands, and the peripheries of water-bodies². In Sudan it is especially found in areas with water up to 1m in depth, and knee-high to hip-high vegetation dominated by Cyperus, Eleocharis, Scirpus, Setaria, Cynodon and various leguminous and rosaceous plants⁹. It always remains near wetlands, but is rarely associated with deep, open water⁸. It often prefers to forage on dry ground with short grass⁹ and, particularly in West Africa, it will sometimes forage and nest in upland areas⁶, rice fields, wet crop fields and even abandoned fields². It prefers to roost in large trees, but will use small trees or shallow water when necessary⁹. Non-breeding during the non-breeding season it congregates in larger permanent wetlands², and often forages near herds of domestic livestock^2,6 or even in rubbish dumps⁹. Diet This species is a generalist omnivore¹⁰. Its primary food source is small grain crops (45%)¹⁰, with small plants, small invertebrates and small vertebrates also featuring in the diet¹⁰. It will take insects (grasshoppers, flies), molluscs, millipedes, crustaceans, fish, amphibians, reptiles, seed heads, grass tips and agricultural grain (corn, rice, millet)^6,8.Breeding site Nests are built on the ground² in densely vegetated wetlands⁶. The nest consists of a round, loosely constructed platform of reeds and grasses placed in short grass marsh in several cm of water, or occasionally on dry land⁸. Its base is often over a metre in diameter⁸. Clutch-size is c.2.5 eggs per nest

Threats Habitat loss and degradation are the main threats, occurring through drought, wetland drainage and conversion for agriculture, overgrazing, fire agricultural and industrial pollution, and dam construction (flooding wetlands upstream and dessicating those downstream)^2,10. Droughts have both directly and indirectly impacted this species' habitat, since they force people to migrate to relatively moist, less populated regions, which are then subjected to the associated pressures mentioned above¹⁰. Considerable hunting pressures also exist¹, including capture and sale of live birds, some destined for legal international markets (over 7,000 birds since 1985 when the species was listed on CITES Appendix II⁴). Parts of dead Black Cranes, notably the head and wings, are used in traditional healing¹⁰. In addition, indiscriminate pesticide application may be leading to harmful bio-accumulation of toxins³, and direct poinsoning to reduce crop depradation has been reported in East Africa¹⁰. Warfare and political instability affects nations across the range of the species, and may particularly impact upon those in southern Sudan where the implementation of conservation measures have not been able to proceed¹⁰. Oil exploration in and near the wetlands also pose a threat¹⁰.

Conservation measures underway CITES Appendix II. Listing under Appendix I has been pursued in the past⁷. A collaborative project was launched in 1999 to determine the population size and trend, distribution and threats, and to draft an action plan for the species³. This may help to identify key breeding areas which can be protected².

Conservation measures proposed Conduct standardised and coordinated surveys to assess the species's total population size. Monitor population trends through regular standardised surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Monitor levels of hunting pressure. Discourage hunting and irresponsible pesticide use through awareness campaigns.

References 1. P. Hall in litt. (1999). 2. Meine and Archibald (1996). 3. E. T. C. Williams in litt. (2000). 4. UNEP-WCMC CITES Trade Database, January 2005. 5. Beilfus et al. (2005). 6. del Hoyo et al. (1996). 7. R. Beilfuss in litt. (2004). 8. Urban et al. (1986). 9. Johnsgard (1983). 10. Williams et al. (2003).

Further web sources of information

International Crane Foundation Species Field Guide

Status, Survey and Conservation Action Plan

Text account compilers Mike Evans (BirdLife International), Lucy Malpas (BirdLife International), Andrew O'Brien (BirdLife International), John Pilgrim (BirdLife International), Alison Stattersfield (BirdLife International), Joe Taylor (BirdLife International)

Contributors Richard Beilfuss (International Crane Foundation), Philip Hall (Pro Natura International), Emmanuel T. C. Williams (International Crane Foundation)

IUCN Red List evaluators Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International), Joe Taylor (BirdLife International)

Recommended citation BirdLife International (2009) Species factsheet: Balearica pavonina. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 10/2/2010

This information is based upon, and updates, the information published in BirdLife International (2000) Threatened birds of the world. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004 CD-ROM and BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008 CD-ROM. These sources provide the information for species accounts for the birds on the IUCN Red List.

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