Justification This species qualifies as Endangered because extensive habitat destruction and capture for the cagebird trade are suspected to have caused very rapid and continuing population declines. These threats have had such a significant impact that it is very rare in four out of six range states, and the total population is now suspected to be small.

Family/Sub-family Psittacidae

Species name author (Bechstein, 1811)

Taxonomic source(s) AOU checklist (1998 + supplements), SACC (2005 + updates), Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993), Stotz et al. (1996)

Synonyms Ara ambigua Stotz et al. (1996), Ara ambigua Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993), Ara ambigua BirdLife International (2004), Ara ambigua BirdLife International (2000)

Taxonomic note Gender agreement of species name follows David and Gosselin (2002b).

Identification 85-90 cm. Very large, green macaw. Red frontal band above huge black bill. Bare facial area with black lines. Flight feathers blue above and olive below. Blue lower back. Orange tail. Facial lines more reddish in older (especially female) birds. Voice Loud squawks and growls, and a creaking aaa call^{22,23,24,25,26}.

Population estimate

Population trend

Range estimate (breeding/resident)

Country endemic?

1,000-2,499

decreasing

100,000 km²

No

Range & population Ara ambiguus occurs as two subspecies. The nominate race occurs from Honduras to north-west Colombia, and the race guayaquilensis in western Ecuador³. In Panama, it is locally fairly common (near Cana, Alturas de Nique^1,17) on the Caribbean slope and fairly common in Darién (and adjacent Colombia¹¹), and occurs in Serranía de Majé and south Cerro Hoya¹⁰. In Colombia, it is also found in the north of the Serranía de Baudó and the West Andes, east to the upper Sinú valley^4,13. In Honduras, it is now rare near the río Plátano¹³ and, in Nicaragua, it persists in the Bosawas Reserve and the Indio-Maíz and San Juan Reserve may hold the second largest global subpopulation^12,31. Ecuador's population has been estimated at 60-90 individuals in 2002 in two widely separated populations²⁷, but the population continues to shrink fast^16,18. There majority of these are in Esmeraldas²⁷, and very small numbers remain in the Cordillera de Chongón-Colonche, Guayas^13,27. The largest population in Costa Rica is only 25-35 pairs⁹. Recent estimates suggest that the global population is less than 2,500 mature individuals (or less than 3,700 in total including juveniles and immatures), with the largest subpopulation in Darién, north-west Colombia estimated at less than 1,700 mature individuals (or less than 2,500 in total)¹⁶. However, even within that area its distribution is quite local, it being absent from several remote areas¹⁷.The species forms non-breeding flocks of 50 or more, with flock attendants coming together from huge areas³¹, possibly leading to inflated local estimates of abundance¹⁶.

Important Bird Areas Click here to view map showing IBAs where species is recorded and triggers any of the IBA criteria.

Ecology: It inhabits humid and wet lowland, foothill and (in south-western Ecuador) deciduous forest^21,27, but occurs in edge habitats and crosses open areas^3,5. It is found mainly below 600 m, but occurs to 1,000 m and occasionally 1,500 m in Darién. In Costa Rica, local movements may reflect the asynchronous fruiting of Dipteryx panamensis, the principal nesting and feeding tree^5,9. In south-western Ecuador, it breeds in June-November, and nests in cavities of dead Cavanillesia plantanifolia trees^2,15. Orchids made up 71% of the diet of a pair watched in Ecuador, and their feeding range was estimated at 2,000 ha¹⁵. In the non-breeding season, it tends to form flocks that disperse over large distances in search of food^16,31.

Threats In Central America, there is conversion to banana plantations and cattle-ranching, and logging¹⁴. Dipteryx panamensis is selectively logged in Costa Rica⁹. Annual deforestation rates are very high throughout its range¹⁹.Deforestation in Panama probably exceeds 30% of its original range¹⁷ and in some other countries (e.g., Costa Rica and Ecuador) the historical range was reduced by % over the past 100 years^16,28. In its South American range, plans to colonise and develop remoter areas are progressing through infrastructural improvements, particularly the rapid expansion of the road network, which have increased the impact of logging, small-scale agriculture, illegal coca plantations, gold mining, and hunting, which is even affecting some key protected areas^27,32,33,34. Urbanisation and agriculture have largely extirpated race guayaquilensis, and it is reportedly shot as a crop-pest^5,8. There is illegal capture for (mostly internal) trade, food and feathers^6,9,12,13,27.

Conservation measures underway CITES Appendix I and II. The stronghold is in Darién Biosphere Reserve, Panama, and adjacent Los Katíos National Park, Colombia. There are important reserves in all range states, but these provide insufficient protection for seasonal wanderers⁵. In Costa Rica, a proposed moratorium on logging D. panamensis has not been implemented^9,13. A government-backed conservation strategy is being implemented in Ecuador¹⁸. In 2007, a successful rapid assessment study in search of the last surviving individuals was carried out in the Cordillera Chongón-Colonche, Ecuador¹⁶. A bi-national campaign in the lowlands of the San Juan River (Nicaragua and Costa Rica) aims to increase awareness of biology, threats and conservation, and strengthen management of natural resources²⁰.

Conservation measures proposed Implement population monitoring programs^27,32. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Quantify levels of persecution and capture for trade. Effectively protect reserves in Honduras, Nicaragua¹³, Ecuador^16,27,32 and other countries. Sustainably manage the buffer zones of key protected areas and reserves²⁷. Curtail trade through law enforcement and educational campaigns^7,12,27. Designate the proposed Maquenque National Park, Costa Rica⁹. In Ecuador, designate the Awá reserve, Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, Awacachi corridor, Gran Reserva Chachi, and Canandé Reserve, including the Río Santiago, Cayapas, Ónzole, and Hoja Blanca drainages, as a biosphere reserve^27,32. In Ecuador, efficiently guard all known nests during the entire nesting period to avoid the destruction of nesting trees and the collection of nestlings by poachers¹⁶. Acquire private reserves in selected areas¹⁵.

References 1. G. R. Angehr in litt. (1998). 2. Berg and Horstman (1996). 3. Fjeldså et al. (1987). 4. Hilty and Brown (1986). 5. Juniper and Parr (1998). 6. Low (1995a), 7. J. Lyons in litt. (1998). 8. Pople et al. (1997). 9. Powell et al. (1995). 10. Robbins et al. (1985). 11. P. Salaman in litt. (1999). 12. C. J. Sharpe in litt. (1999). 13. Snyder et al. (2000). 14. Stattersfield et al. (1998). 15. Lopez-Lanus (1999). 16. O. Jahn in litt. (2004 and 2005). 17. G. R. Angehr in litt. (2005). 18. E. von Horstman in litt. (2005). 19. FAO (2001). 20. Chassot et al. (2006). 21. Berg et al. (2007). 22. Ross and Whitney (1995). 23. Jahn et al. (2002). 24. Whitney et al. (2002). 25. Krabbe and Nilsson (2003). 26. Coopmans et al. (2004). 27. Benítez (2002). 28. Chassot et al. (2002). 29. Powell et al. (1999). 30. Jahn (2001). 31. O. Chassot verbally (2004). 32. Jahn (in press a). 33. Álvarez (2002). 34. Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (2001).

Text account compilers Phil Benstead (BirdLife International), Matt Harding (BirdLife International), Isabel Isherwood (BirdLife International), Olaf Jahn (Aves & Conservación and Fundación EcoCiencia), Tom Stuart (BirdLife International), Andy Symes (BirdLife International)

Contributors George Angehr (Panama Audubon Society), Eric Horstman (Fundación Pro-Bosque), Olaf Jahn (Aves & Conservación and Fundación EcoCiencia), J. Lyons, Paul G. W. Salaman (Fundación ProAves), Chris J. Sharpe

IUCN Red List evaluators Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International), Andy Symes (BirdLife International)

Recommended citation BirdLife International (2009) Species factsheet: Ara ambiguus. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 10/2/2010

This information is based upon, and updates, the information published in BirdLife International (2000) Threatened birds of the world. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004 CD-ROM and BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008 CD-ROM. These sources provide the information for species accounts for the birds on the IUCN Red List.

To provide new information to update this factsheet or to correct any errors, please email BirdLife

To contribute to discussions on the evaluation of the IUCN Red List status of Globally Threatened Birds, please visit BirdLife's Globally Threatened Bird Forums