Justification This species has seen a steady and prolonged increase in the wild population as a result of intensive recovery management. However, its overall numbers are still small, and the population is restricted to a small range within which habitat continues to decline. It therefore qualifies as Endangered.

Family/Sub-family Psittacidae

Species name author (Newton & Newton, 1876)

Taxonomic source(s) Dowsett and Forbes-Watson (1993), Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993)

Synonyms Psittacula echo Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993), Psittacula echo Dowsett and Forbes-Watson (1993)

Taxonomic note Use of the specific name eques follows Cheke (1987).

Identification 36 cm. Long-tailed, green parakeet. Male has bright red bill. Female has dark bill and is generally darker overall. Similar spp. Easily confused with smaller, paler Rose-ringed Parakeet P. krameri and best distinguished by vocalisations. Voice Loud kaaark kaaark in flight and sharp, short kik kik, unlike the high-pitched shrieks and shrills of P. krameri.

Population estimate

Population trend

Range estimate (breeding/resident)

Country endemic?

50-249

increasing

60 km²

Yes

Range & population Psittacula eques survives in south-west Mauritius, having become extinct historically on Réunion (to France). From the 1970s to the mid-1980s the 10 or so known birds appeared to suffer almost total breeding failure. However, breeding subsequently began to be successful, and in 1993-1994 there were 16-22 birds (including five pairs, three of which bred but without success) with an additional captive pair which produced one young in 1993. During the 1996-1997 breeding season there were 13 known wild pairs with a total of 50-61 birds present at the end of the breeding season restricted to an area of c.50 km² contained within the 65.74 km² Black River Gorges National Park in the south-west of the island⁵. In 1998 the wild population stood at 59-73 birds, with 14 captive-bred or captive-reared birds having been released at Macchabé-Brise Fer since 1997⁸. The rapid increase in population since 1995 is due primarily to intensive management of the wild population, the discovery of previously unknown breeding birds and an increase in the number of breeding groups that attempt to breed each year⁷. There are now 15 known wild breeding groups⁹. In the 1999/2000 season, 19 pairs were known in the wild, 16 pairs laid eggs and 12 pairs were successful in raising 19 young, so that the population in January 2000 stood at 106-126 wild individuals¹⁴. There was also a captive population of 33 birds held at this time at the Gerald Durrell Endemic Wildlife Sanctuary, Black River¹⁴. Since that time the population continued to increase to 55 pairs (280-300 birds in the wild) in February 2005^15,18. The 2004-2005, 2005-2006 and 2006-2007 breeding seasons have shown continued improvement^16,18,19. In March 2006 the population was estimated at 309-335 in the wild¹⁶. However, numbers fell to an estimated 290 birds by August 2006, probably due to Psittacene Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD)¹⁶. In 2007, the population was estimated at 343 birds in the wild¹⁹. This species occupies only c.40 km² of remnant native upland forest and uses only around 50% of this regularly¹⁰.

Important Bird Areas Click here to view map showing IBAs where species is recorded and triggers any of the IBA criteria.

Ecology: This species now survives in forest and upland scrub¹, with lowland, intermediate and scrub forests being very important feeding areas³. It appears to be a strictly arboreal forager, feeding mainly on native plants and taking a wide range of parts including buds, young shoots, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, twigs and even bark and sap³. They return to favoured food trees, some of which have been used for generations¹⁷. Birds forage singly or in small groups in different areas at different seasons and are known to travel several kilometers to and from feeding areas in search of food, although the dwarf forest and scrublands of the south-west plateau are an important foraging area throughout the year³. Nesting takes place in natural cavities in native trees². The breeding unit is a pair or a group of one female with up to three males, one of which is dominant and mates with and feeds the female¹⁷. The presence of extra males is probably the result of a skewed sex ratio; pairs are usually hostile to extra males, who seem to have no positive effect on fledging success, which is probably related to the experience of the dominant male¹⁷. Clutch size is 1-4 (but normally 2-3) eggs, which are laid from September-December^7,17, and incubation, by the female, lasts 21-25 days¹⁷. Hatching success is high¹⁴. One or two chicks are usually fledged¹⁷ from the end of October to the beginning of February or later, and fledgling parakeets are reputed to stay with their parents, being fed by them for at least 2-3 months after leaving the nest³. One possible reason for the marked increase in the number of pairs attempting to breed each year is the species's increasing utilisation of exotic plants for food, particularly the very common strawberry guava Psidium cattleianum and star fruit Averrhoa carambola^7,14,17.

Threats This species's earlier decline and contracting distribution corresponds to the severe destruction and degradation of its native habitat^2,3. The population crashed from a likely total of several thousand following forest destruction and the replacement of its favoured feeding habitat, upland dwarf forest, with plantations¹⁷. In 1996, only 5% of the island was covered with native vegetation¹⁷. The areas of upland native forest that remain continue to be highly degraded by cyclones, the influences of past forestry practices, the spread of introduced plants such as guava Psidium cattleianum, privet Ligustrum robustum and jamrosa Syzygium jambos and the effect of introduced feral mammals such as pigs Sus scrofa and rusa deer Cerus timorensis^2,7. The production of native fruit, on which the parakeet feeds, and regeneration of potential nest trees is thus poor². Recent research suggests that food shortage due to deterioration of the native forest is the major cause of nest failure; although exotics can provide an abundant food source it is not available year-round or even throughout the breeding season⁷. Crab-eating macaques Macaca fascicularis and black rats Rattus rattus are amongst a number of introduced arboreal species which pose a threat to parakeets by raiding nests and competing for native fruits². Bees Apis melifera, White-tailed Tropicbirds Phaeton lepturus, introduced Common Mynas Acridotheres tristis and Ring-necked Parakeets Psittacula krameri are all nest site competitors and can displace active breeding pairs^7,14. The decline in the number of old native trees, which are lost to storm damage and senescence, has intensified competition for nesting cavities, with 14-19% of P. eques cavities lost to competitors each year¹⁷. Surplus male P. eques (the male: female ratio is c.3:1) also disrupt some breeding pairs and possibly kill young birds¹⁴. Infestations of nest fly larvae can be severe in some years and, without intervention, would kill many young¹⁴. Recently, PBFD has been recorded but its impacts are not yet fully understood^16,19. Pesticides do not seem to have significantly affected the species².

Conservation measures underway The species has been the subject of a conservation programme since 1973¹⁷. The dramatic increase in the species's population in recent years is undoubtedly due to an intensive programme to manage the wild population combined with a highly succesful captive breeding programme since the 1993/4 breeding season¹⁷ - a collaborative effort of the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation, the World Parrot Trust, the Mauritian Government and the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust Society² - which has released 22 captive-reared individuals since 1997¹⁴, of which at least 13 still survived in May 1998¹⁷. It was hoped that 20-30 captive-reared birds would be released each year from 1999 to 2003¹⁷. In the 2004/5 breeding season 11 chicks were produced by captive birds, and a new release site was set up where a total of 36 birds were released¹⁸. Intensive management includes nest site enhancement, provision of nest boxes (not yet used), supplementary feeding of some individuals, predator control around nest sites, control of nest competitors (White-tailed Tropicbird Phaeton lepturus), control of nest parasites, close guarding and monitoring of all nests, rescue of eggs/young from failing nests, clutch manipulations (double clutching, exchanging infertile eggs with fertile ones), and brood manipulations (downbrooding, ie removing extra chicks from large broods and giving to foster parents)^14,17. All nest cavities are enhanced, modified and repaired as necessary, and measures taken to eliminate rats and parasites and prevent flooding¹⁷. Habitat management has been directed at increasing the productivity of native forest and has included the foundation in 1993 of the Black River National Park in 6,574 ha of native forest^2,4, including most of the species's remaining habitat¹⁷. There are 14 Conservation Management Areas (CMAs), ranging from 0.2 to 24 ha, in which native forest is manually cleared of weeds¹⁷. These CMAs are heavily utilised by the species as their trees produce bumper crops¹⁴. Captive-reared birds have been released into the largest CMA, where problematic mammals are controlled¹⁷. Research is ongoing into present and historic genetic variation of the species so that the effects of the population bottleneck can be quantified and current populations managed to preserve maximum genetic diversity⁵. Research into the impact of PBFD is likely to be ongoing for several years¹⁹. Non-invasive exotic fruit trees are being planted to provide an extra food source¹⁰.

Conservation measures proposed Improve nest site management^6,9. Feed wild birds with supplementary food^6,9. Increase production of birds for release by controlling disease and improving diet of captive birds^6,9. Establish new, and improve existing (in part by the use of predator proof fencing¹⁴) CMAs^9,14, and establish managed source populations breeding in nest boxes within these areas¹⁴. Redress the sex ratio through judicious harvesting of surplus male nestlings and releasing mainly young females¹⁴. Consider reintroduction to Réunion and introduction to the Seychelles, where Psittacula wardi is extinct¹⁴. Research the potential impacts of PBFD on the population. Continue to improve nest-box design¹⁷. Plant non-invasive exotic fruit trees to provide an extra food source⁷.

References 1. Marshall (1997), 2. Greenwood (1996), 3. Jones (1987), 4. Jones and Hartley (1995), 5. Jones and Swinnerton (1997), 6. Thorsen et al. (1997), 7. Thorsen and Jones (1998). 8. Safford (1998). 9. Swinnerton (1998), 10. Thorsen et al. (1998), 11. Swinnerton et al. (1998), 12. Murray et al. (1998), 13. Mauritian Wildlife Foundation in litt. (1999), 14. C. Jones in litt. (2000). 15. C. Jones in litt. (2005). 16. V. Tatayah in litt. (2006). 17. Jones et al. (1998). 18. Raffray (2005). 19. Raffray (2007).

Text account compilers Phil Benstead (BirdLife International), Jeremy Bird (BirdLife International), Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International), Jonathan Ekstrom (BirdLife International), Rachel McClellan (BirdLife International), John Pilgrim (BirdLife International), Sue Shutes (BirdLife International), Joe Taylor (BirdLife International), Ben Warren (BirdLife International)

Contributors Carl Jones (Mauritian Wildlife Foundation), Vikash Tatayah (Mauritian Wildlife Foundation)

IUCN Red List evaluators Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International), Joe Taylor (BirdLife International)

Recommended citation BirdLife International (2009) Species factsheet: Psittacula eques. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 10/2/2010

This information is based upon, and updates, the information published in BirdLife International (2000) Threatened birds of the world. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004 CD-ROM and BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008 CD-ROM. These sources provide the information for species accounts for the birds on the IUCN Red List.

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