Justification This species is listed as Vulnerable because it has a small population which is undergoing a continuing decline, principally owing to the gradual dessication of water bodies within a highly localised range.

Family/Sub-family Psittacidae

Species name author Sclater, 1906

Taxonomic source(s) Dowsett and Forbes-Watson (1993), Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993)

Identification 14 cm. Fast-flying parrot. All-green, apart from dark brown head, orange bib below throat, and white eye-ring. Bright red bill. Juvenile similar but with more orange bill. Voice Loud and piercing shrieks, identical to those of other lovebirds. Hints It forages predominantly at ground-level on annual-grass seeds, but also arboreally on other vegetable matter and insect larvae, as well as ripening sorghum and millet fields^3,9,10.

Population estimate

Population trend

Range estimate (breeding/resident)

Country endemic?

2,500-9,999

decreasing

16,400 km²

No

Range & population Agapornis nigrigenis occurs patchily in south-west Zambia between the Kafue river to the north and the Zambezi river to the south⁸, with an Extent of Occurrence of c.14,400 km², within which the core breeding areas cover c.2,500 km^{2 2,4}. The species is found in an area of 4,550 km² of mopane woodland, 3,200 km² of which occurs in the Zambezi catchment¹¹. It used to occur more widely^2,4, although some isolated historical records may reflect feral populations⁴, as may unconfirmed records from the eastern Caprivi region of Namibia^2,4. However, these might refer to birds from wild populations¹¹. There have also been unconfirmed records from Botswana and Zimbabwe. The core population can be split into two subpopulations during the dry season, those in the Zambezi catchment (c.6,200 birds in 1994) and the Kafue catchment (c.3,800 birds in 1994)¹¹. In 1994, the overall population density in presumed breeding habitat was c.2.2 birds/km² (this does not reflect their clumped distribution¹⁰) and the total population was estimated to be 10,000 individuals^4,11. Evidence from farmers and bird-trappers suggests that this is a considerably lower total than in the early 20th century^4,7.

Important Bird Areas Click here to view map showing IBAs where species is recorded and triggers any of the IBA criteria.

Ecology: It inhabits deciduous woodland, dominated by mopane Colophospermum (not Baikiaea^1,4, as formerly reported⁷), where permanent supplies of surface water exist^4,11. It commutes to adjoining habitats, such as riverine vegetation and agricultural areas, to forage and drink¹⁶. It requires daily access to water^4,8,9,11, and needs to drink twice each day^12,16. In the dry season it congregates in large flocks of up to 800 or more in some areas⁸. It relies on water sources that are not regularly disturbed by humans and livestock^16,17. It breeds in holes in mature mopane trees near roosting sites^2,13, during January-May^10,12. Fidelity to nest-sites is suspected¹². The breeding season coincides with the annual maximum rainfall and the beginning of the dry season¹⁵, and pairs usually raise a single clutch^12,15. Broods of six and seven nestlings have been observed¹⁵. The species roosts in naturally formed cavities in live mopane trees^12,13. Food largely consists of annual grass seeds, other seeds of annual herbs and ripening crop seeds (millet and sorghum)^11,12,14. They have also been observed to consume invertebrates, leaves, flowers, nectar, bark, lichen, resin and soil^12,14. The crop-ripening season coincides with the species's breeding season^12,16 and its appetite for crop seeds has earned it a reputation locally as a pest^11,12. In south-west Zambia, it has been recorded that 18% of millet seed heads suffered more than 20% damage from the species during the ripening season¹².

Threats Three factors are thought to have caused its decline the past century: heavy exploitation for the cage-bird trade from the 1920s⁷ to the 1960s¹¹, gradual dessication of its habitat^7,11,12, which is thought to be (currently) the main threat given the highly localised range of the species¹², and the partial replacement of sorghum and millet crops, an attractive food source^2,4,10, with maize, between c.1930 and 1950^4,11. There is evidence that the wild-caught trade in this species is currently at a very low level, with only isolated incidences of trade and export^11,15, although it is clear that any international demand would be met eagerly^13,16. Some birds are caught for subsistence consumption^11,15, and it is also persecuted as a pest, however these birds would usually be eaten as well¹¹. Farmers take measures to mitigate damage to crops^11,12, but they are largely ineffective and rarely lethal¹². The current levels of hunting and capture are unlikely to have any serious long-term impact on the population, but could threaten local populations suffering from the effects of dessiccation¹¹. Recently there may have been local declines due to loss of surface water supplies in the dry season, perhaps due to long-term climate change^2,4,8,11. The number of permanent water sources in mopane woodland has decreased since the early 20th Century¹¹. The low availability of water in the dry season is probably the principal factor in the disappearance of permanent populations from the Bovu and Sinde Rivers, and changes to the Ngweze River population¹¹. This is exacerbated by a decrease in the annual rainfall in the species's habitat of, on average, about 5 mm per year between 1950 and 1995, increasing the species's reliance on artificial water sources¹⁶. The recent establishment of hand-pumped boreholes along the catchments of the Ngweze, Sichifulo, and Machile rivers may lead to a decrease in the availability of surface water as people reduce their water source creation activities in riverbeds¹⁶. In some areas, water pools are poisoned to kill fish and this can impact the species¹¹. The species may be threatened by the declining dry-season availability of water in temporary rivers in south-western Zambia, due to declining levels of rainfall¹⁷. Mopane woodland is exploited for firewood and timber, though the habitat is regenerating and encroaching into other habitats in some areas¹¹. Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease Virus is present in the wild population^12,15, but there is no evidence that this is a serious threat.

Conservation measures underway CITES Appendix II. Trapping of birds for trade is now banned⁵. In Zambia, a trade ban on wild-caught birds was implemented in 1930¹⁶. Approximately 35% of its habitat lies within Kafue National Park and surrounding Game Management Areas^5,6, whilst most of its core range is included within the Machile and Kafue National Park IBAs¹⁸. Detailed research programmes on this species were underway in the 1990s^2,4,5,8,9 from which reports have been published. An education project focusing on the species was conducted in south-west Zambia in September 2001, involving local schools, villagers and Zambia Wildlife Authority scouts¹².

Conservation measures proposed Conduct regular (e.g. monthly)¹¹ counts at selected sites (such as water sources in the dry season)^12,16 to monitor its population^4,5, concentrating on the core distribution¹¹. Conduct annual monitoring in areas such as the mid-Machile and Sichifulo rivers and the Mabiya pools region of south Kafue National Park¹⁶. Monitor the availability of surface water in the dry season¹⁶. Investigate its status in the eastern Caprivi^4,11. Encourage its return to former range areas, initially through piloting the provision of undisturbed water sources and strips of sorghum and millet⁸. Continue a programme of environmental education involving school-visits^4,11,12 and meetings with farming communities¹² to reduce trapping and disturbance at water sources¹⁶. Provide training in ornithology and conservation for potential local surveyors¹¹. Hold meetings with villagers on the protection of resources such as trees and water¹¹. Maintain and create water resources with minimal disturbance¹². Continue to enforce the trade ban on wild-caught birds of this species^12,13,16. Investigate the effect of burning on the availability of grass seeds¹⁴. Manage water sources (e.g. add perching structures) to encourage use by the species¹⁶. Assess the impact of pumped boreholes on surface water supplies¹⁶.

References 1. Benson and Irwin (1967). 2. Dodman (1995b). 3. Dodman (1995a). 4. Dodman (1997). 5. T. Dodman in litt. (2000). 6. P. Leonard in litt. (1999). 7. Moreau (1948). 8. Warburton (1999b). 9. Warburton (1999a). 10. L. S. Warburton in litt. (1999, 2000). 11. Dodman (1995c). 12. Warburton (2003). 13. Warburton and Perrin (2005a). 14. Warburton and Perrin (2005b). 15. Warburton and Perrin (2005c). 16. Warburton and Perrin (2005d). 17. T. Dodman in litt. (2007). 18. Leonard (2005).

Text account compilers Jonathan Ekstrom (BirdLife International), Mike Evans (BirdLife International), John Pilgrim (BirdLife International), Sue Shutes (BirdLife International), Malcolm Starkey (BirdLife International), Joe Taylor (BirdLife International)

Contributors Dylan Aspinwall, Tim Dodman (Wetlands International Africa, Europe, Middle East), M.P.S Irwin, Pete Leonard, Dave Rockingham-Gill (BirdLife Zimbabwe), L. S. Warburton (University of KwaZulu-Natal)

IUCN Red List evaluators Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International), Joe Taylor (BirdLife International)

Recommended citation BirdLife International (2009) Species factsheet: Agapornis nigrigenis. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 9/2/2010

This information is based upon, and updates, the information published in BirdLife International (2000) Threatened birds of the world. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004 CD-ROM and BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008 CD-ROM. These sources provide the information for species accounts for the birds on the IUCN Red List.

To provide new information to update this factsheet or to correct any errors, please email BirdLife

To contribute to discussions on the evaluation of the IUCN Red List status of Globally Threatened Birds, please visit BirdLife's Globally Threatened Bird Forums