Justification This species has a moderately small population which appears to be suffering an ongoing decline in its Asiatic strongholds, despite the fact that in parts of Europe numbers are now increasing. Consequently it qualifies as Near Threatened.

Family/Sub-family Accipitridae

Species name author (Linnaeus, 1766)

Taxonomic source(s) AERC TAC (2003), Cramp and Simmons (1977-1994), Dowsett and Forbes-Watson (1993), Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993)

Identification 98-107 cm. Huge, broad-winged vulture, short, often slightly wedge-shaped tail; all dark brown. Juveniles are blackish. One of the largest Old World vultures. Bare skin of head and neck bluish grey; head covered with blackish down. Massive beak. Sexes alike. Voice Little used and quite unspecialised. Calls include croaks, grunts, and hisses when feeding at carcasses; also querulous mewing, loud squalling or roaring during breeding season.

Population estimate

Population trend

Range estimate (breeding/resident)

Country endemic?

14,000 - 20,000

decreasing

13,700,000 km²

No

Range & population Aegypius monachus breeds in Spain, Bulgaria, Greece, Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Ukraine, Russia, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyztan, Iran, Afghanistan, north India, northern Pakistan⁹, Mongolia and mainland China, with a small reintroduced population in France. It may occasionally breed in Portugal, F.Y.R.O. Macedonia and Albania, but it no longer breeds in Slovenia, Italy, Cyprus, Moldova and Romania. There are wintering areas in Sudan, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Pakistan, north-west India, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Lao People's Democratic Republic, North Korea and South Korea. Its global population is estimated to number 7,200-10,000 pairs, with 1,700-1,900 pairs in Europe^6,7 and 5,500-8,000⁷ pairs in Asia. In Europe, populations are increasing in Spain (minimum 1,500 pairs⁷), Portugal and France, and are stable in Greece and Macedonia⁶. However, numbers are decreasing in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Russia, Turkey and the Ukraine⁶. Overall, the European population underwent a large increase between 1990 and 2000, possibly >30% overall^6,8. Much less information is available regarding the status and population trends of the species in Asia, where the bulk of the global population resides. There are probably over 1,000 pairs in the Asian part of the former Soviet Union and a further 1,760 pairs in China⁴. It appears that breeding populations are more or less stable in Mongolia¹² (where the species is described as common) and Pakistan⁹ (where it is described as scarce), although fluctuations in distribution and breeding success occur, and populations within some nature reserves in Mongolia (where there are few domestic livestock) are declining¹². In Kazakhstan, however, populations of all vulture species are in severe decline, owing to a precipitous decline in their main food resource, the Saiga antelope (Saiga tartarica)¹³. This trend may be mirrored in a number of other central Asian countries where populations of both domesticated livestock and wild ungulates have declined greatly in recent years¹⁴. Very little is known about population trends on its wintering grounds, although wintering populations appear to be declining in Nepal¹⁰ and increasing in India¹¹ and South Korea¹⁶.

Important Bird Areas Click here to view map showing IBAs where species is recorded and triggers any of the IBA criteria.

Ecology: It inhabits forested areas in hills and mountains at 300-1,400 m in Spain, but higher in Asia, where it also occupies scrub and arid and semi-arid alpine steppe and grasslands up to 4,500m⁵. It forages over many kinds of open terrain, including forest, bare mountains, steppe and open grasslands. Nests are built in trees or on rocks (the latter extremely rarely in Europe but more frequently in parts of Asia), often aggregated in very loose colonies or nuclei. Its diet consists mainly of carrion from medium-sized or large mammal carcasses, although snakes and insects have been recorded as food items. Live prey is rarely taken. In Mongolia, at least, the species is reliant on livestock numbers for successful nesting¹⁵.

Threats The two main threats to the species are direct mortality caused by humans (either accidentally or deliberately) and decreasing availability of food. The main cause of unnatural death is the use of poisoned baits for predator extermination⁷, although shooting and destruction of nests also occur^7,12. Shooting and poisoning are increasing in Mongolia¹², and many birds are trapped or shot in China for their feathers. There are fears that veterinary application of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug Diclofenac, which has caused the near-extinction of several Gyps vultures in India, may have a negative impact on A. monachus¹², particularly as increasing numbers of the species are wintering in northern India¹⁴. A study in central Spain during 2003-2005 found high concentrations of antibiotics in blood samples from 57% of nestlings tested¹⁸. The same study found two antibiotics in the liver samples of all dead nestlings that were tested. It is hypothesised that antibiotic residues, particularly quinolones, cause liver and kidney damage, and deplete lymphoid organs and alter bacteria flora, facilitating pathogenic bacterial and fungal infections¹⁸. In Europe, decreased food availability is caused by European Union legislation on carcass disposal⁷. In eastern Europe and central Asia, particularly in the former Soviet Union, changes in agricultural practices and human migration from the countryside to the cities have greatly reduced numbers of domestic livestock. In Georgia and Armenia, declines may be linked to the loss of subsidies for sheep-herding in the post-Soviet era¹⁹. Additionally, there have been steep declines in many populations of wild ungulates which provide a major food source for the species. The Saiga antelope (Saiga tartarica), for example, numbered over one million individuals ten years ago, and has now been reduced to a population of 30,000-40,000 owing to uncontrolled hunting and severe winters¹³. In South Korea, food limitation is a serious problem such that the species relies on supplementary food¹⁶. Habitat loss is also thought to be important⁷.

Conservation measures underway The EU Birds Directive has contributed to the recovery and conservation of the species in Europe, particularly Spain, where the population has increased from an estimated 290 pairs in 1984 to a minimum of 1,511 pairs at present⁷. Co-operation between Spanish government agencies and conservationists under the 'Antidote Programme' also appears to have been effective in mitigating the effects of poisoned baits. Both the Spanish and the Andalusian Governments have produced anti-poisoning strategies, but the former still remain to be financially supported while the latter need more decisive official endorsement. A reintroduction project in France has resulted in the establishment of a small breeding population with good prospects. Supplementary feeding programmes have been initiated in Spain and France to provide a safe, poison-free food source, although there are concerns that the species may be not very prone to feed at conventional feeding stations. In the Balkans, the species has only one stable colony in the Dadia forest reserve in northern Greece, where WWF has long been involved. Supplementary food is also provided in Bulgaria for breeding birds¹⁷ and South Korea during the winter, which may be the factor attacting birds from Mongolia¹⁶. In eastern Europe and central Asia, fewer conservation actions are known, although the species occurs within a number of protected areas in the region. The Balkan Vulture Action Plan aims to transfer expertise and technology relating to the conservation of the species from western to eastern parts of Europe⁷.

Conservation measures proposed Survey to determine the species's status and population trends on breeding grounds outside Europe and on wintering grounds⁷. Research threats, particularly the decline in abundance of prey species. Carry out reintroductions to link up the western and the eastern sub-areas of the present range, following the recommendations of The World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the Black Vulture Conservation Foundation. Restore wild rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus populations in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands (Spain) as this may help to increase food availability, particularly during the breeding period. Promote cooperation and information exchange among people working on the species, both at a national and international level. Strengthen and enforce legislation regulating trade in pesticides that are used to poison meat baits. Increase the rate of prosecution and the severity of judicial sentences for illegal poisoning.

References Heredia (1996b). 1. V. Galushin in litt. (1999). 2. Heredia et al. (1997). 3. WWF Greece (1999). 4. Ye Xiao-Ti (1991). 5. Thiollay (1994). 6. BirdLife International (2004). 7. Anon. (2004b). 8. I. Burfield in litt. (2005). 9. A. Khan, A. Parveen and R. Yasmeen in litt.(2005). 10. H. S. Baral in litt. (2005). 11. T. Katzner in litt. (2005). 12. N. Batbayar in litt. (2005). 13. W. Fremuth in litt. (2005). 14. T. Katzner in litt. (2005). 15. Batbayar et al. (2006). 16. Lee et al. (2006). 17. Anon. (2007). 18. Lemus et al. (2008). 19. M. McGrady in litt. (2007).

Further web sources of information

Action Plan for the Cinereous Vulture in Europe

Detailed species account from Birds in Europe: population estimates, trends and conservation status (BirdLife International 2004)

Fully detailed species accounts from the Threatened birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book (BirdLife International 2001), together with new information collated since the publication of the Red Data Book

Text account compilers Phil Benstead (BirdLife International), David Capper (BirdLife International), Joe Taylor (BirdLife International), Helen Temple (BirdLife International)

Contributors Hem Sagar Baral (Bird Conservation Nepal), Nyambayar Batbayar (Wildlife Science and Conservation Centre), Ian Burfield (BirdLife International - European Division), Wolfgang Fremuth (Frankfurt Zoological Society), Vladimir M. Galushin (Russian Bird Conservation Union), Todd Katzner (National Aviary), Aleem Ahmed Khan (Ornithological Society of Pakistan), Mike McGrady (Natural Research Ltd), Abida Parveen (Ornithological Society of Pakistan), Rafat Yasmeen (Ornithological Society of Pakistan)

IUCN Red List evaluators Ian Burfield (BirdLife International - European Division), Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International), Rob Pople (BirdLife International - European Division), Joe Taylor (BirdLife International)

Recommended citation BirdLife International (2009) Species factsheet: Aegypius monachus. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 9/2/2010

This information is based upon, and updates, the information published in BirdLife International (2000) Threatened birds of the world. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004 CD-ROM and BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008 CD-ROM. These sources provide the information for species accounts for the birds on the IUCN Red List.

To provide new information to update this factsheet or to correct any errors, please email BirdLife

To contribute to discussions on the evaluation of the IUCN Red List status of Globally Threatened Birds, please visit BirdLife's Globally Threatened Bird Forums