Justification Overall, this species has undergone a moderately rapid population reduction, which is projected to continue, and it has a moderately small population. It is therefore classed as Near Threatened.

Family/Sub-family Ciconiidae

Species name author (Latham, 1790)

Taxonomic source(s) Christidis and Boles (1994), Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993)

Identification 129-150 cm. A very large and characteristic stork. Adults have bright red legs, white body, extensive black in the wings and tail and notably a glossy iridescent black head and neck with big black bill. Genus Ephippiorhynchus unique among storks in showing sexual dimorphism in colouration: iris dark brown in male and yellow in female. Immature mostly dull brown. Similar spp. Unmistakeable. No similar spp. within the range.

Population estimate

Population trend

Range estimate (breeding/resident)

Country endemic?

10,000 - 21,000

decreasing

-

No

Range & population Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus occurs in South Asia, South-East Asia and Oceania. In South Asia it is found in Pakistan (previously frequent in lower Sind, breeding in the Indus delta until the 1970s, now a straggler), Nepal (rare resident and winter visitor to the terai), India (a widespread resident, but now generally rare and local, and may now be absent in many areas in the south¹), Bhutan (likely as a non-breeder), Bangladesh (former resident, now a vagrant), and Sri Lanka (fewer than 50 mature individuals resident, principally in the dry lowlands). In South-East Asia it occurs in Myanmar (formerly a widespread resident, current status unclear but certainly scarce), Thailand (formerly quite widespread, now a rare resident in the peninsula, almost extinct), Laos (previously a widespread non-breeding visitor, probably breeding in the south, but now extremely rare), Cambodia (previously fairly common; regular recent records, with small numbers breeding), and Indonesia (apparently once present in the Sundaic region, but now extinct there; population >650 in south Papua, formerly Irian Jaya). The species was thought to be extinct in Vietnam, with no records since 1987, but in 2003, two individuals were recorded during a survey of Yok Don National Park²³. In Oceania it is found in Papua New Guinea (very local, but occasionally not uncommon) and Australia (relatively large population in the north). The combined South and South-East Asia populations are thought to number fewer than 1,000 individuals⁵. While it is in decline in South Asia, in South-East Asia it has dwindled to the brink of extinction. However, a population of c.29 pairs studied in Uttar Pradesh (India) had high productivity and low mortality and has been judged to be at least stable, if not a source for neighbouring populations². The districts of south-western Uttar Pradesh are the species's stronghold in India¹⁰. Between 1996 and 2003, the species was judged to be in decline at 32 (54%) of the 59 sites in India where it was recorded⁶. It is probably stable in south Papua and Australia, although confirmation of the trend in south Papua is required. A recent estimate places the Australian population at up to 20,000 breeding individuals and secure, although it has been contested that this is unduly optimistic and that the figure may not exceed 10,000. These estimates have been used to extrapolate a global total of c.31,000 individuals⁶. However, owing to the uncertainty surrounding this estimate, a range of 10,000-21,000 mature individuals is preferred as a conservative estimate of the total breeding population.

Important Bird Areas Click here to view map showing IBAs where species is recorded and triggers any of the IBA criteria.

Ecology: It inhabits freshwater marshes and lakes^3,16, pools in open forest and large rivers¹⁶ and flooded grassland³, up to an altitude of 1,200 m¹⁶. It occasionally uses mangroves and coastal habitats^6,15,16, such as estuaries and brackish lagoons¹⁵. It also frequents artificial habitats such as reservoirs⁶, sewage ponds and irrigation stores^3,12. Although it shows a preference for natural wetlands throughout the year, it uses similar artificial habitats like rice paddies for a short period of time, particularly during and after the monsoon season, when natural wetlands may become too deep for foraging¹². It will also forage in wet or dry wheat fields and flooded fallow fields, the latter especially in summer when the extent of natural wetlands is reduced¹². It is carnivorous³ and has high food requirements^7,9,19, tending to be largely territorial, being recorded in flocks very occasionally⁴, and becoming more aggressive as food is depleted²⁰. It feeds in shallow water up to 0.5m deep¹⁷, and takes fish^17,19,20, reptiles and frogs¹⁷, some waterfowl¹¹ and turtle eggs¹³. It has been observed using tactile feeding methods most often^19,20, although visual methods are also used, depending on the habitat and prey-type²⁰. It is a territorial breeder^7,12,15,18, and pairs stay together during successive seasons, some even after breeding is over^2,9. Nests are built in old trees⁷. In India, it starts to nest from August onwards¹⁴, with earlier breeders in northern India timing their egg laying in September and October to coincide with the end of the monsoon season⁸. In New South Wales, Australia, eggs are laid from May to August, with fledging occurring between October and January⁴. Breeding pairs generally raise one or two chicks and three is not uncommon, although four is rare^2,21. Chicks generally stay in natal territories until the subsequent breeding season, although they stay longer if adult birds do not breed in the subsequent year².

Threats It is threatened by a variety of factors across its range, including drainage of wetlands, felling of nest trees, development, encroachment of agriculture or aquaculture, overfishing, overgrazing, hunting and excessive capture for zoos. Consecutive years of drought can cause declines in the population³. In India, the freshwater wetlands that this species relies upon are under great pressure from expanding human populations⁶. The most frequent threat to the species in this country is fishing^6,15, which is so intensive in places that even 5-10 cm fishes are taken⁷, followed by the affects of sedimentation on wetland quality⁶. However, deterioration of foraging habitat through the conversion of wetlands into agricultural fields is also a major threat in India^7,8,12. In the face of wetland reclamation, flooded rice paddies have become important and may be promoting the dispersal of young birds and preventing the fragmentation of sub-populations¹². Eggs are taken in at least some parts of India⁶. Disturbance during the nesting season is a major threat⁷. Deaths due to collision with electricity wires are occasional²², but deaths of younger birds due to wire fences in Australia are more common¹⁰. Additional threats in Sri Lanka include possible inbreeding in small populations, pesticide poisoning of wetlands and loss of mangroves to increasing salinity levels¹⁵.In Australia, the species is thought to be threatened by disturbance and habitat loss, but has not been greatly affected by the intensification of land-use in eastern Australia¹⁷. Sea-level rise is projected to have a negative impact upon coastal habitats. The frequent formation of mostly female-biased trios in Australia may indicate that the sex ratio of the species is skewed⁴.

Conservation measures underway CITES Appendix I. In Australia the species is listed as rare in Queensland and Endangered in New South Wales. It has been upgraded to Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, giving it full protection. It is a conservation priority in Cambodia. It occurs in a number of protected areas including several national parks in Australia and India. Studies on the distribution and abundance levels of this species are presently ongoing in South-East Asia and India¹⁰. An analysis subsequent to these studies is expected to provide improved population estimates. Detailed studies in at least one location have begun in Australia and will also provide improved population information¹⁰.

Conservation measures proposed Protect remaining habitat, especially in South and South-East Asia. Try to mitigate in advance against the loss of habitat to sea-level rise in Australia. Carry out range-wide surveys to accurately determine the total population size and trends. Prevent birds being captured for trade to collections and zoos in Asia. Control hunting of the species. Study the importance of flooded rice paddies for dispersal and linkage of sub-populations through genetic and telemetry studies^10,12. In most areas of the species's range regulate landscape-scale farming practices and development projects to incorporate maintenance and preservation of natural wetlands, and reduce changes in land-use such as conversion to drier crops¹². Carry out more research into its breeding biology and behaviour⁹. Continue to monitor wetlands in northern Cambodia (using photo-traps) to help understand breeding biology and success¹⁰.

References BirdLife International (2001). 1. G. Maheswaran in litt. (2003). 2. Sundar (2003). 3. del Hoyo et al. Family CICONIIDAE (1992). 4. Sundar et al. (2006). 5. K.S.G. Sundar in litt. (2006). 6. Maheswaran et al. (2004). 7. Rahmani (1987). 8. Maheswaran (2003a). 9. Maheswaran (2003b). 10. K.S.G. Sundar in litt. (2007). 11. Verma (2003). 12. Sundar (2004). 13. Chauhan and Andrews (2006). 14. Bhatt (2006). 15. Santiapillai et al. (1997). 16. Sharma (2007). 17. Garnett and Crowley (2000). 18. Maheswaran and Rahmani (2005). 19. Maheswaran and Rahmani (2002). 20. Maheswaran and Rahmani (2001). 21. Sundar et al. (2007). 22. Sundar (2005). 23. Anon. (2003).

Further web sources of information

Australian Govt - Action Plan for Australian Birds 2000 - Recovery Outline for Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus australis

Fully detailed species accounts from the Threatened birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book (BirdLife International 2001), together with new information collated since the publication of the Red Data Book

Text account compilers Phil Benstead (BirdLife International), Jeremy Bird (BirdLife International), Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International), Stephen Garnett (Charles Darwin University), John Pilgrim (BirdLife International), Joe Taylor (BirdLife International)

Contributors Les Christidis (Museum Victoria), Greg Clancy (Dept of Zoology, University of New England), Stephen Garnett (Charles Darwin University), Gopinathan Maheswaran (Bombay Nat. History Soc/Zoological Survey of India), Gopi Sundar (International Crane Foundation)

IUCN Red List evaluators Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International), Mike Crosby (BirdLife International), Guy Dutson (Birds Australia), Joe Taylor (BirdLife International)

Recommended citation BirdLife International (2009) Species factsheet: Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 9/2/2010

This information is based upon, and updates, the information published in BirdLife International (2000) Threatened birds of the world. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004 CD-ROM and BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008 CD-ROM. These sources provide the information for species accounts for the birds on the IUCN Red List.

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