Justification This species has undergone a long-term decline and now has an extremely small population, with over 95% of truly wild birds concentrated in one subpopulation in Morocco. Numbers are currently increasing owing to management actions and consequent improved breeding success. However, this improvement in its status in Morocco is very recent and has not yet led to an increase in the number of colonies. In Syria its population appears to have declined dramatically in the past 30 years. The species is precautionarily retained as Critically Endangered for these reasons.

Family/Sub-family Threskiornithidae

Species name author (Linnaeus, 1758)

Taxonomic source(s) AERC TAC (2003), Cramp and Simmons (1977-1994), Dowsett and Forbes-Watson (1993), Sibley and Monroe (1990, 1993)

Identification 70-80 cm. Large ibis. Black overall, with iridescent tints of blue, green and copper in sunlight. Red, naked face and crown. Long, narrow feathers project from nuchal area to form ruff. Voice Usually silent. Various hisses and grunts at nest and in display.

Population estimate

Population trend

Range estimate (breeding/resident)

Country endemic?

210

decreasing

590 km²

No

Range & population Geronticus eremita occurs in Morocco at Souss-Massa National Park (Souss-Massa NP) (338 km²; three sub-colonies) and at nearby Tamri (one colony, half the breeding population)², with some movement of birds between these two. A tiny colony was discovered at Palmyra, Syria in 2002, which consisted of just two pairs which fledged five chicks, plus three subadults in 2007²¹, following a severe population decline over the past 30 years¹¹. The Syrian birds have raised 24 young since 2002 but breeding failed in 2008, probably due to predation by Ravens Corvus corax³². Searches in 2003 for further colonies within the Syrian steppes proved fruitless^11,19. Satellite-tagging has revealed that this population migrates south through Jordan and Saudi Arabia; six birds spent three weeks in Yemen (July-August), then wintering in central Ethiopia; migrating back to Syria, through Eritrea, Sudan, Saudi Arabia and Jordan in February²⁵; four adults were also located in Ethiopia in the winters of 2006-2007 and 2007-2008³². Records of untagged birds in Israel and Djibouti in late 2007 may relate to immature birds from the Syrian colony or birds from an as yet undiscovered population³². In 1995, the Moroccan population was estimated at 300 individuals (74 breeding pairs that laid eggs)⁷. In 1998, it had declined to 59 pairs, following the mysterious death of 40 birds in 1996^2,8, but by 2006 there were 95 pairs that laid eggs)²⁶. Importantly, since 1980 there has been no overall decline in numbers at Souss-Massa NP⁷. Growing numbers, and good productivity (over 500 birds in the Moroccan population after the breeding season in recent years) give cause for optimism that former areas may soon be recolonised¹⁴. A semi-wild population numbering 91 individuals in 2006 exists at Birecik, Turkey²⁰, where birds are free-flying for five months, breeding on natural nest sites and nest-boxes on cliffs, but are taken into captivity after the breeding season to prevent them from migrating^15,20. The Turkish population has been shown to be genetically distinct from the Moroccan population¹⁰. Historically, the species occurred across parts of southern Europe, and captive populations have been maintained in Austria (at Grünau, 22 birds, now breeding) and Spain, with a long-term aim to re-establish the species in parts of its former range. Around 30 birds have now been released in the La Janda area, Spain, and in 2008 a released pair laid two eggs, perhaps the first breeding of the species in the wild in Spain for 500 years³².

Important Bird Areas Click here to view map showing IBAs where species is recorded and triggers any of the IBA criteria.

Ecology: The small Syrian population is migratory, but the larger western population is dispersive²⁹. Breeding occurs in colonies of up to 40 pairs. It begins in mid-February, and eggs are laid in March-April²⁹. Colonies are vacated in late June or early July, but migration and dispersal do not commence until August, with birds recorded on the breeding grounds as late as November³⁰. Some reside in Souss-Massa NP and around Tamri throughout the year⁷. Juveniles tend to disperse over the longest distances²⁹. Movements appear to be to some extent determined by rainfall³¹. Migrating birds do not arrive in their Ethiopian winter quarters before December³⁰. All return to their breeding colonies in February and March³⁰. The species forages in loose groups with birds well spread out³⁰, but commutes in flocks between the colony or roost and the feeding grounds³⁰. Winter flocks vary from a few individuals to over 100³⁰. Breeding performance is highly variable from one year to the next⁷, but does not appear to be related to rainfall in the vicinity of the colonies as previously reported elsewhere. It is suggested that coastal fogs in the Souss-Massa region may buffer the adverse impacts of low rainfall, and may in part account for the year-round residency of the birds⁷. Colonies are usually situated in rocky areas, cliffs and escarpments in remote arid regions³⁰. They are often located near the banks of rivers, along streams or on the coast³¹. Birds may feed on dry ground and rocky slopes, as well as in wetlands, on coastal sandy strips, on river beds and in sandy banks on the sea shore³¹. Roosts away from the breeding site can be in trees, on cliff ledges or sometimes in fields³¹. Especially during the non-breeding season it may be found in mountain meadows, stubble fields, short grass, rocky semi-arid ground, and damp ground in lower areas of high plateaus³¹. It prefers areas with very sparse vegetation, but sometimes frequents pastures and cultivated fields¹². It avoids tilled fields and pastures where the grass exceeds 25 cm in height³¹. Birds that migrate to Ethiopia during the non-breeding season feed on high moors, wet meadows and by fast-flowing mountain streams and lake margins up to 3500 m elevation³¹. It has a broad diet, feeding on any available animal-life¹² including insects, arachnids, scorpions, earthworms, snails and vertebrates such as fish, amphibians, lizards and snakes, small rodents and small birds, whether alive or dead³¹. It will also feed on vegetation including berries, shoots, duckweed, and rhizomes of aquatic plants³¹. It breeds on cliff-ledges, in caves and among boulders³⁰. In the past castles, ruins and walls were used as nest sites even in urban areas³¹. The nest is a loose platform of small branches lined with softer materials³¹.

Threats It has declined for several centuries, perhaps partly owing to unidentified natural causes. However, the more recent rapid decline is undoubtedly the result of a combination of factors, with different threats affecting different populations. In Morocco, illegal building and disturbance close to the breeding cliffs and changes in farming on the feeding grounds are the threats that may have the most severe impact on the population. In Syria hunting is the main threat to the tiny population, and overgrazing and collecting of firewood have reduced habitat quality in feeding areas. A well was under construction at a main feeding site in Syria in 2007. This is likely to increase disturbance to the species and might render this important site unsuitable in the near future²⁷. Mortality during migration appears to be high among the Syrian birds¹⁷. Breeding productivity in Syria in 2005 was zero: local rangers reported predation as the cause. The Birecik population has also suffered from losses to predation in some years²⁸. At Souss-Massa NP, the most recent causes of breeding failure have been loss of eggs to predators and, more importantly, poor chick survival as a result of starvation and predation⁷.

Conservation measures underway CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I and II. In 1999, an international advisory group IAGNBI was created to coordinate efforts and provide scientific advice⁹. An international species action plan was published in 2006. Over 1,000 individuals of the western population exist in captivity worldwide, but birds from the eastern population are much rarer in captivity (four Turkish zoos hold 20 birds and participate in an ex situ breeding operation¹⁸). An international studbook was discontinued in 1998¹⁸. An in situ breeding programme at Birecik aims to establish a partially captive population of 150 birds to provide birds for release to the wild population if this action is agreed in future¹⁸. Colour-ringing of young at Birecik has begun and there are plans to attach satellite transmitters to a family party in July 2007²⁰. Other captive breeding schemes exist or are planned in Austria, Spain, Italy and an experimental testing phase of a potential reintroduction project is planned in Bavaria²³. There have been experimental field studies of the feeding ecology of hand-raised individuals in potential summer and winter habitat in Europe²⁴. In 1991, the Souss-Massa National Park was designated specifically to protect nesting and feeding areas⁷ and in 1994, a monitoring and research programme was set up involving local people². The Palmyra project in Syria has initiated a research and protection programme in collaboration with local communities. Three birds were satellite-tagged there in June 2006²², and one in 2007; it is hoped this will reveal the wintering grounds of juveniles. The project also aims to search further areas of the Syrian steppe in the near future¹¹. The breeding area in Syria was declared a protected area in 2004 by Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform. It was also declared as an IBA by BirdLife in 2007. Ecotourism and awareness raising has been promoted throughout the range. Conservation action to date has focused on reducing the negative influences on breeding success, but it is recognised that for such a long-lived bird adult survival is also likely to be an important limiting factor on the population size.

Conservation measures proposed Conduct research into feeding and breeding biology, and habitat requirements⁴. Continue to monitor numbers and breeding success⁷. Protect key breeding and roosting sites from disturbance and development⁷. Explore the possibility of reintroducing captive-bred birds into previously occupied sites (when detailed information on ecological requirements is available)^4,6,9. Research feasibility of re-establishing wild (preferably migratory) population in Turkey²⁰. Better link the Birecik and Syrian populations and projects; research potential to supplement Syrian colony with birds from Turkey²⁰. Continue with current husbandry at Birecik to increase colony to 150-200 birds²⁰. Protect wintering areas in Ethiopia. Determine where young birds go after leaving Syrian breeding colony²². Raise awareness among hunters on the migration route²².

References Collar and Stuart (1985). Jimenez Armesto et al. (2006). 2. Bowden (1998b). 4. Brindley et al. (1995). 5. Anon. (1998). 6. Mendelssohn (1994). 7. Bowden et al. (2003). 8. Touti et al. (1999). 9. Bowden (2001). 10. Pegoraro et al. (2001). 11. Serra et al. (2003). 12. Aghnaj et al. (2001). 13. C. Bowden in litt. (2003). 14. C. Bowden in litt. (2006). 15. G. Eken in litt. (2005). 16. G. Engin in litt. (2005). 17. G. Serra in litt. (2006). 18. Böhm (2004). 19. Serra et al. (2004). 20. J. Tavares in litt. (2007). 21. P. Buckley in litt. (2007). 22. Anon. (2006). 23. N. Schaffer in litt. (2007). 24. Zoufal et al. (2006). 25. Anon (2007). 26. El Bekkay and Oubrou (2004). 27. G. Serra in litt. (2007). 28. J. Tavares pers. comm. (2008). 29. del Hoyo et al. 30. Cramp et al. (1977). 31. Hancock et al. (1992). 32. Hirschfeld (2008).

Further web sources of information

African-Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA) International Action Plan 2006

Detailed species account from Birds in Europe: population estimates, trends and conservation status (BirdLife International 2004)

RSPB - Ecology of threatened species

RSPB - International Research - Northern Bald Ibis

Text account compilers Phil Benstead (BirdLife International), Jeremy Bird (BirdLife International), Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International), Jonathan Ekstrom (BirdLife International), John Pilgrim (BirdLife International), Rob Pople (BirdLife International - European Division), Rob Pople (BirdLife International), Sue Shutes (BirdLife International)

Contributors Chris Bowden (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds), Paul Buckley (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds), Guven Eken (Doga Dernegi), Gökhan Engin, Carlo Heip (Netherlands Institute of Ecology), Norbert Schäffer (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds), Cagan Sekercioglu, Gianluca Serra, Jose Tavares (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds)

IUCN Red List evaluators Jeremy Bird (BirdLife International), Stuart Butchart (BirdLife International), Andy Symes (BirdLife International)

Recommended citation BirdLife International (2009) Species factsheet: Geronticus eremita. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 10/2/2010

This information is based upon, and updates, the information published in BirdLife International (2000) Threatened birds of the world. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004 CD-ROM and BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008 CD-ROM. These sources provide the information for species accounts for the birds on the IUCN Red List.

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